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-1904. 
Christianity  in  the 


CHRISTIANITY 
IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


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PHILADELPHIA 

BOSTON        NEW  YORK        CHICAGO        ST.  LOUIS 

DALLAS         ATLANTA 


Cbvistianit^ 


IN  THE 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


y     y 

{The  Boston-Lowell  Lectures,  igoo) 


GEORGE  C.  LORIMER 

{Minister  at  Tremont  Temple 


T{ed  of  the  daum  ! 

Is  it  turning  a  fainter  red  ?     So  be  it ;  hut  when  shall  we  laj> 

The  ghost  of  the  brute  that  is  walking  and  haunting  us  yet,  and  be  free  ? 

In  a  hundred,  a  thousand  winters  ?     t/lh  !  what  will  our  children  be. 

The  men  of  a  hundred  thousand,  a  million  summers  away  ? 

— Tc  nil  J  son 


PHILADELPHIA 

^be  ©ritKtb  d  IRowlanD  ipress 

1900 


Copyright  igoo  by  the 
American  Baptist  Publication  Society 


Sfrom  tbc  Socfct^'9  own  Iprcss 


H)eDtcateD 

TO  THE 

%Tzmon1}  "temple  (Shureh 

AND 

^ongregalfion 

IVhose  Loyal  Faith  and  Liberal  Spirit 

HAVE   PROVEN 

^n  Unfailing  Source  of  Encouragement  and  Inspiration 
To  Their  Devoted  Friend  and  Tastor 

XLbc  Butbor 


PREFATORY 


Like  Otto  Pfleiderer's  famous  work,  ^^ Das  Urcliris- 
tciithum,  etc.,  etc.,"  which  was  an  elaboration  of  his 
*' Hibbert  Lectures,"  deUvered  in  England  (1887),  this 
volume  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  "■  Lowell  Lectures," 
given  before  the  Lowell  Institute,  in  Boston,  during  the 
last  winter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  object  of 
the  author  is  to  present  Christianity  as  it  has  thought 
and  toiled  through  a  hundred  eventful  years  ;  and  as 
"all  sublunary  things  are  the  vassals  of  vicissitude,"  to 
indicate  what  changes  on  its  human  side  have  taken 
place  in  creeds,  expositions,  rituals,  and  practical  meth- 
ods of  endeavor.  It  has  not  been  possible  to  enter  the 
bypaths  or  to  explore  the  obscure  nooks  of  this  history, 
and  consequently  only  the  highways  and  mountain  sum- 
mits have  been  surveyed.  These,  however,  are  suffi- 
cient. To  have  attempted  more  would  have  added  no 
special  value  to  the  inquiries  instituted,  and  would  have 
substituted  wearisome  chronological  annals  for  philo- 
sophical generalizations. 

This  book  does  not  claim  to  be  a  picture  gallery, 
where  biographical  portraits  are  unveiled  for  the  in- 
struction and  inspiration  of  the  multitude.  Here  and 
there  on  its  pages  sketches  of  leaders  necessarily  occur ; 
but  these  are  drawn,  not  for  their  own  sake  so  much  as 
for  the  light  they  may  help  to  throw  on  momentous 
movements   and   far-reaching   events.      Lord   Macaulay 

vii 


Vlll  PREFATORY 

was  unquestionably  right  in  saying:  "A  people  which 
takes  no  pride  in  the  noble  achievements  of  remote  an- 
cestors will  never  achieve  anything  worthy  to  be  remem- 
bered by  remote  descendants  "  ;  and  the  triumphs  of 
contemporaries  are  equally  entitled  to  grateful  homage 
and  appreciation.  It  is  not  denied  that  Christianity 
during  the  nineteenth  century  has  been  defended,  cham^ 
pioned,  and  extended  by  many  notable  and  illustrious 
men  and  women  ;  but  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this 
volume  to  discuss  their  merits  nor  to  eulogize  their  serv- 
ices. This  were  a  delightful  task  to  perform  ;  but  it 
is  not  contemplated  in  these  lectures.  Here  we  have 
to  do  exclusively  with  Christianity,  with  its  progress, 
with  its  success  and  failures,  with  its  variations  and  alli- 
ances, and  not  primarily  with  those  spiritual  chiefs  and 
captains  who  have  marshaled  its  hosts,  and  by  their 
genius  lent  a  lustre  to  its  banners,  nor  with  those  great, 
though  misguided,  intellects  that  have  converted  its 
"faith  into  faction,"  have  divorced  reason  from  passion, 
and  have  flamed  like  comets  broken  away  from  their 
divinely  appointed  path  in  the  heavens. 

It  is  likewise  to  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  reader  that 
the  author  is  compelled  to  deal  with  Christianity  as  he 
finds  it  in  the  nineteenth  century;  not  with  it  as  he  may 
suppose  it  ought  to  be,  but  as  it  is  ;  not  only  as  it  ap- 
pears in  his  eyes,  but  as  it  is  in  the  eyes  of  others  ;  not 
with  it  as  a  theory  but  as  a  fact ;  and  not  necessarily 
with  it  as  revealed  in  the  New  Testament  but  as  it  is 
seen  in  history.  And  yet  let  it  not  be  feared  that  this 
method — the  really  scientific  method — may  endanger 
truth,  and  lend  itself  to  erroneous  conceptions  of  the 
religion  w^hich  our  Lord  established  in  the  earth.    There 


PREFATORY  IX 

is  in  reality  no  such  peril.  Rather  may  we  feel  sure 
that  this  course  will  open  the  way  for  thoughtful  dis- 
crimination, and  assist  in  fixing  the  terms  in  which  the 
faith  of  the  Gospels  must  finally  be  stated. 

Throughout  his  investigations  the  writer  of  these 
pages  has  been  moved  by  a  desire  to  ascertain  how  far 
Jesus  Christ  rules  in  the  theology  and  in  the  social  life 
of  the  age.  It  is  well  known  that  at  the  beginning  he 
was  not  only  the  source  but  was  the  very  center  of  the 
religion  he  proclaimed,  and  that  all  of  its  institutions 
derived  their  value  and  significance  from  him.  And 
there  are  not  lacking  signs  that  he  is  now  being  gradu- 
ally restored  to  this  unique  position.  His  re-enthrone- 
ment in  the  doctrine  of  the  church,  with  the  tribute  of 
modern  literature  to  his  moral  greatness,  and  the  con- 
stant appeal  of  the  suffering  poor  and  of  the  struggling 
proletariat  to  his  compassion  and  justice,  constitute  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  chapters  in  the  history  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  It  reads  like  a  romance,  this  coming  of 
the  Lord  to  his  own  again.  In  the  present  volume  all 
this  will  be  made  clear,  as  well  as  the  effect  of  this  new 
epiphany,^  like  a  new  transfiguration  on  the  mount,  upon 
the  development  of  Christian  thought  and  brotherhood. 
While  its  remarkable  results  are  not  to  be  anticipated 
in  these  prefatory  sentences,  and  while  they  are  not 
wholly  without  drawbacks,  it  may  with  confidence  be 
assumed  that  they  are  of  the  deepest  significance  and 
of  the  highest  value.  Under  the  influence  of  the  re- 
enthroned  Christ  the  church  is  becoming  more  and 
more  spiritual,  more  and  more  active,  more  and  more 
catholic  ;   and  while  we  are  not  approaching  the  time 

^  Jeremy  Taylor. 


X  PREFATORY 

seen  by  St.  John,  when  the  heavenly  world  shall  dispense 
with  its  temple,  and  never  shall  until  the  consummation 
and  the  final  glory,  still  the  temple  is  becoming  more 
and  more  a  living  organism,  whose  gates  are  open  wide 
in  welcome  to  "all  peoples  who  do  dwell  beneath  the 
sun."  This  much  may  be  permitted  by  way  of  intro- 
duction, but  it  is  not  necessary  that  this  forecast  should 
go  any  farther.  It  may,  however,  be  added,  that  if  any 
reader  seeks  in  these  pages,  and  in  the  progress  they 
record,  the  assuring  evidences  that  the  night  is  far 
spent,  that  the  battle  against  wrong  has  already  been 
ended  victoriously,  that  there  is  little  left  for  the  new 
century  to  undertake,  and  that  time  itself  has  grown  old 
and  moribund,  he  will  be  disappointed  and  will  be 
speedily  undeceived.  Rather  while  he  reads  and  reads 
will  he  be  led  to  sing  with  Charles  Kingsley  : 

While  a  slave  bewails  his  fetters  ; 

While  an  orphan  pleads  in  vain  ; 
While  an  infant  lisps  his  letters, 

Heir  of  all  the  ages'  gain  ; 
While  the  lip  grows  ripe  for  kissing  ; 

W^hile  a  moan  from  man  is  wrung  ; 
Know  by  every  want  and  blessing, 

That  the  world  is  young. 


SPECIAL  NOTE 


The  acknowledgments  of  the  author  are  due  the 
Rev.  Phihp  L.  Jones,  d.  d.,  for  careful  supervision  of 
these  pages  as  they  passed  through  the  press  ;  and  to 
Rev.  Ph.  Vincent,  Harriet  Tilly  (Madame  Cadot),  and 
Rev.-  H.  Andou,  of  France,  and  to  that  noble  friend  of 
missions  in  Germany,  Frau  H.  Alberts,  for  their  assist- 
ance in  gathering  statistics,  and  in  making  translations 
from  various  works  not  within  his  reach.  To  one  and 
all  he  tenders  his  hearty  thanks. 

G.  C.  L. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The   Christian    Faith    in   the  Twilight  of  Two 

Centuries i 

II.   The  Human  Element  in  the  Progress  of  a  Di- 
vine Religion 51 

III.  The   Renaissance   of   Medieval  Roman   Catholi- 

cism      89 

IV.  The  New  Prophetism  in  Modern   Literature  .    .  141 

V.   The  Social  Awakening  of  the  Christian  Church  187 

VI.  The  Bearing  of  Recent  Research  on  the  Inspira- 
tion OF  Holy  Writ 245 

VII.  The  Emancipation  and  Transformation  of  Evan- 
gelical Theology 303 

VIII.   The   Failure    of    Modern    Substitutes   for  the 

Ancient  Faith 351 

IX.   The  Movement  for  the  Restorarion  of  Primitive 

Christian  Union 405 

X.   The   Influence   of   Christianity  on  a   Hundred 

Years  of  History 455 

XI.   The  Limitations  of  Church  Success  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century 509 

XII.   The  Religious  Message  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury to  the  Twentieth 569 

Indexes 623 


THE    DUSK   AND    DAWN 


Wild,  wild  wind,  wilt  thou  never  cease  thy  sighing? 

Dark,  dark  night,  wilt  thou  never  wear  away  ? 
Cold,  cold  church,  in  thy  death-sleep  lying, 

The  Lent  is  past,  thy  Passion  here,  but  not  thine  Easter  Day. 

Peace,  faint  heart,  though  the  night  be  dark  and  sighing  ; 

Rest,  fair  corpse,  where  thy  Lord  himself  hath  lain  ; 
Weep,  dear  Lord,  above  thy  bride  low  lying  ; 

Thy  tears  shall  wake  her  frozen  limbs  to  life  and  health  again. 

— Kingsley 


THE    CHRISTIAN    FAITH    IN    THE    TWILIGHT    OF    TWO 
CENTURIES 

To  some  people  it  is  not  quite  clear  whether  this 
year,  1900,  forms  part  of  the  old  century  or  of  the 
new,  or  whether  it  is  an  intercalary  year,  a  kind  of 
*'no  man's  land,"  belonging  to  neither.  They  have 
found  the  problem  perplexing,  if  not  fascinating,  and 
possibly,  to  them  at  least,  as  bewildering  as  the  delimi- 
tation of  frontiers  between  such  countries  as  Alaska 
and  Canada,  or  Venezuela  and  Great  Britain.  But 
however  serious  the  issue  may  seem  to  them,  it  is  not 
of  sufficient  interest  to  detain  us,  for  whatever  conclu- 
sion is  reached,  one  thing  is  certain — this  season  marks 
a  culminating  period  in  the  march  of  the  ages  that 
serves  as  a  Lookout  Mountain,  from  whose  summit 
the  past  century  may  be  advantageously  surveyed. 
Mariners  have  frequently  to  steer  for  weary  and  doubt- 
ful days  by  dead  reckoning,  but  they  are  always  re- 
lieved when  the  mists  disperse  and  they  are  able  to 
''  take  the  sun  "  and  their  ''bearings"  as  well.  Genera- 
tions also,  like  ships,  may  pursue  their  way  through 
haze  and  fog,  ascertaining  their  whereabouts  only  by 
unsatisfactory  methods;  but  when  a  new  century  is 
dawning,  then  conditions  are  favorable  to  secure  scien- 
tific observations,  and  then  the  sun  should  be  taken 
and  the  position  and  course  of  humanity  be  determined 
as  accurately  as  possible.      This  very  serviceable  task 

3 


4  CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

will  undoubtedly  be  undertaken  during  the  next  few 
months  by  various  social  navigators ;  and,  in  harmony 
with  their  spirit,  it  is  contemplated,  in  the  studies  on 
which  we  are  now  entering,  to  discover  where  we  are 
religiously,  on  what  spiritual  seas  we  are  sailing,  and  to 
what  haven  of  faith  we  are  voyaging. 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Croly,  in  a  sermon  preached  at  St. 
Paul's,  1844,  termed  the  Lutheran  Reformation  ''the 
third  great  birth  of  time,"  and  unless  we  are  inexcus- 
ably infatuated,  the  nineteenth  century  will  be  described 
by  future  historians  as  the  fourth.  While  in  some  re- 
spects its  glories  may  not  compare  with  those  of  its 
three  brilliant  predecessors, — distinguished  by  the  na- 
tivity of  cosmos,  the  nativity  of  Christ,  and  the  spiritual 
renaissance, — nevertheless  it  has  achieved  unique  victo- 
ries quite  its  own,  for  it  has  mastered  not  a  few  of 
creation's  forces,  has  extended  almost  to  infinity  our 
conception  of  the  universe,  and  has  not  only  redeemed 
Christianity  from  various  superstitious  accretions,  but 
has  applied  her  healing  principles  to  the  wounds  of  so- 
ciety in  a  way  at  once  original  and  sympathetic. 

The  last  hundred  years  have  witnessed  the  progress 
of  "  inventions  and  discoveries  which  abridge  distance, 
which  annihilate  time,  which  extend  commerce,  which 
aid  agriculture,  which  save  labor,  which  transmit  speech, 
which  turn  the  darkness  of  the  night  into  the  brilliancy 
of  the  day,  which  alleviate  pain,  which  destroy  disease, 
and  which  lighten  even  the  infirmities  of  age."'  We 
are  living  in  a  new  world,  not  meaning  by  the  expres- 
sion what  it  usually  signifies,  this  wonderful  American 
continent,  but  new  in  a  sense  applicable  to  transatlantic 

1  MacMaster,  "Hist.  People  of  U.  S.,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  3. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN 


5 


lands  as  well  as  to  our  own;  new  in  its  methods  of 
locomotion,  of  transportation,  of  illumination,  of  com- 
munication, of  exploration,  and  of  production  and  distri- 
bution. Instead  of  the  tedious  stage-coaches  and  canal 
boats  of  a  hundred  years  ago,  we  have  mighty  railways 
and  swift  steamers;  instead  of  the  weekly  or  monthly 
post,  penetrating  with  difficulty  rural  districts  and  the 
borders  of  the  wilderness,  we  have  the  telegraph  and 
the  telephone,  by  which  thought  and  speech  are  trans- 
mitted through  forests  and  under  oceans;  instead  of 
the  pen,  the  needle,  the  hand-press,  and  the  primitive 
implements  of  husbandry,  we  have  the  typewriter,  the 
sewing-machine,  the  steam  presses,  and  the  marvelous 
mechanism  for  harvesting;  and  instead  of  flaring  oil 
lamps,  linkboys,  and  uncertain  pine  torches,  we  have 
gas  and  electricity  and  such  startling  power  over  light 
that  we  can  illuminate  the  larynx  and  the  stomach,  and 
through  the  Rontgen  rays  can  render  opaque  sub- 
stances transparent.  By  geology,  we  have  reconstructed 
the  popular  ideas  of  time;  by  astronomy,  we  have  gained 
a  magnificent  conception  of  space;  by  spectrum  analy- 
sis, we  have  been  able  to  determine  even  the  relative 
heat  and  chemical  constitution  of  the  heavenly  bodies; 
by  anaesthetics,  we  have  been  able  to  give  to  humanity 
the  benefits  of  the  most  delicate  surgery  ;  while  by  anti- 
septics, we  have  rendered  comparatively  safe  the  most 
difficult  operations ;  by  photography,  we  have  been  able 
to  bring  within  the  range  of  telescopic  vision  stars  too 
distant  for  the  eye  to  reach ;  and  by  evolution,  we  have 
been  able  to  rise  to  the  level  of  an  entrancing  view  of 
harmonious  and  orderly  development,  which,  whatever 
may  be  its  errors  in  details,  teaches  that. 


6  CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

The  world  was  built  in  order, 
And  the  atoms  march  in  tune, 

and  has  imparted  to  law  an  awful  and  unparalleled  sanc- 
tity and  awakened  the  hope  that,  as  all  things  have 
moved  from  the  low  to  the  high,  so  society,  at  last,  sym- 
pathizing with  the  upward  trend,  shall  realize  in  itself 
the  fairest  dreams  of  social  renewal  and  of  human  hap- 
piness. As  we  think  over  the  many  transcendent  things 
which  have  been  wrought  and  try  in  some  degree  to 
comprehend  the  strangeness  of  the  new  world  which 
our  children  are  to  inhabit,  we  can  readily  understand 
the  pardonable  enthusiasm  of  the  poet  when,  like  a 
weird  minstrel,  he  sings: 

The  old  times  are  dead  and  gone  and  rotten  ; 

The  old  thoughts  shall  nevermore  be  thought  ; 
The  old  faiths  have  failed  and  are  forgotten  ; 

The  old  strifes  are  done,  the  fight  is  fought  ; 
And  with  a  clang  and  roll  the  new  creation 
Bursts  forth,  'mid  tears  and  blood  and  tribulation. 

But  not  all  of  the  old  faiths  have  been  forgotten; 
one,  at  least,  retains  its  hold  on  the  reverence  and  con- 
science of  mankind ;  and  among  the  many  transforming 
wonders  of  the  century  now  ending,  not  the  least,  but 
rather  ranking  with  the  greatest,  must  be  classed  the 
vitality,  the  flexibility,  the  fertility,  the  extension,  the 
expansion,  the  self-abnegation,  the  self-reliance,  and  the 
self-emancipation  of  the  Christian  religion. 

It  is  to  the  study  of  Christianity  in  the  nineteenth 
century  that  these  lectures  are  devoted,  to  a  review  of 
its  vicissitudes  and  victories,  its  changes  and  variations, 
its  successes  and  failures,  its  enterprises  and  aspirations. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  7 

its  alliances  and  antagonisms,  its  vagaries  and  excres- 
cences ;  and,  indeed,  to  everything  that  can  throw  light 
on  the  significance  of  its  more  recent  history,  and  en- 
able us  in  some  measure  to  determine  the  character  of 
its  essential  genius,  to  estimate  its  value  and  duty  to 
society,  and  to  foreshadow  its  destiny  in  the  coming 
age.  And  I  approach  this  exalted  theme,  not  in  the 
spirit  of  one  who  holds  a  brief  for  any  particular  de- 
nomination, not  even  as  an  evangelical  Protestant,  nor 
as  one  bound  to  make  out  a  case  conformable  to  his  per- 
sonal bias,  prejudices,  or  wishes :  I  shall  speak  to  you 
simply  as  a  student,  stating  the  facts,  whether  they  are 
as  I  would  like  them  to  be  or  not,  and  describing  the 
conclusions  that  have  been  reached  and  the  present 
trend  and  tendency  of  religious  thought  and  life, 
whether  they  accord  with  my  preconceptions  or  with 
yours,  or  whether  they  are  in  the  main  contrary  to  what 
we  have  expected  or  could  have  desired.  In  my  opinion, 
the  prime  qualification  for  the  task  I  am  entering  on  is 
transparent  veraciousness,  and  no  one  should  undertake 
it  unless  he  is  ready,  if  necessary,  to  crush  his  own  idols 
and  break  with  his  own  traditions.  A  spirit  less  can- 
did, truth -seeking,  and  generous  would  fall  far  below 
the  demands  of  this  occasion,  and  would  rob  the  treat- 
ment of  the  grave  subject  before  us  of  every  claim  to 
the  serious  attention  of  thoughtful  men  and  women. 

Auguste  Sabatier,  writing  the  *'  Outlines  of  a  Phil- 
osophy," reminds  the  world  of  the  perennial  interest 
which  attaches  to  the  theme  I  have  chosen.      He  says  : 

No  one  nowadays  underestimates  the  social  importance  of  the 
religious  question.  Philosophers,  moralists,  politicians,  show 
themselves  to  be  alive  to  it ;  they  see  it  dominating  all  others.  .  . 


8  CIIRISTIAMTY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Who,  at  the  close  of  his  secret  meditations,  on  the  confines  of  his 
knowledge,  at  the  end  of  his  affections,  of  the  joys  he  has  tasted, 
of  the  trials  he  has  endured,  has  not  seen  rising  before  him  the 
religious  question — I  mean  the  mysterious  problem — of  his  des- 
tiny ?  Of  all  questions,  it  is  the  most  vital.  .  .  Has  life  a  mean- 
ing ?  Is  it  worth  living?  Our  efforts — have  they  an  end?  Our 
works  and  our  thoughts — have  they  any  permanent  value  to  the 
universe  ?  This  problem,  which  one  generation  may  evade,  re- 
turns with  the  next. 

And  emphatically  it  confronts  us  with  singular  impera- 
tiveness to-day.  While  there  may  have  been  a  disposi- 
tion, and  that  too,  not  very  long  ago,  to  waive  it  aside 
as  no  longer  within  the  circle  of  living  issues,  that  time 
has  gone  and  once  more  the  leaders  of  thought  are 
earnestly  occupied  with  what  Sabatier  calls  the  religious 
question.  But  if  justice  is  to  be  done  to  this  momentous 
question,  it  must  be  examined,  not  alone  in  the  light  of 
speculative  theology,  ecclesiastical  tradition,  and  ideal- 
istic psychology ;  it  must  be  carefully  studied  in  the 
actual  field  of  history,  as  an  operative  force  in  human 
affairs.  And  so  far  as  my  reading  and  observation  go, 
there  has  been  no  period  so  rich  in  material  for  such 
investigations  since  the  apostolic  age  as  the  one  on 
whose  amazing  transformations  the  curtain  of  time  is 
descending. 

To  understand  what  Christianity  has  been  and  has 
wrought  during  the  past  hundred  years  demands  that 
we  familiarize  ourselves  with  its  condition  in  the  twi- 
light of  two  centuries — in  the  evening  twilight  of  the 
eighteenth  and  in  the  morning  twilight  of  the  nine- 
teenth. These  closing  and  opening  seasons,  this  dusk 
and  dawning,  are  related  as  prophets  to  the  aftertime. 
They  are  as  the  Isaiahs,  the  Jeremiahs,  and  the  Malachis 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  9 

of  the  Bible,  foreshadowing  and  anticipating  the  march 
of  events.  To  comprehend  their  speech  is  to  possess 
the  key  which  unlocks  the  mystery  of  many  astounding 
departures  and  upheavals.  The  end,  with  few  excep- 
tions, can  always  be  seen  from  the  beginning,  provided 
the  meaning  of  the  beginning  has  itself  been  fathomed. 
Each  generation  has  at  its  heart  "  the  potency  and  the 
promise"  of  its  successor;  and  the  evening  is  gener- 
ally a  fair  harbinger  of  the  morning,  and  evening  and 
morning  together  usually  determine  the  character  of 
the  day.  Naturally,  therefore,  we  direct  our  inquiries 
to  the  two  twilights  for  the  purpose  of  deciding  at  the 
outset  certain  preliminaries,  without  which  the  subse- 
quent history  of  Christianity  would,  at  the  best,  be 
vague  and  obscure. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  destitute  neither  of  great 
men  nor  of  noble  deeds  ;  but  somehow  its  annals  and 
memories  do  not  thrill  and  arouse  us  as  do  those  of  the 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth.  Its  moral  atmosphere  during  its 
earlier  stages  is  enervating,  its  political  life  ignoble,  and 
its  religious  spirit  cold  and  selfish.  As  a  distinct  period, 
it  is  eminently  respectable,  painfully  conventional  and 
commonplace,  and  when  it  breaks  forth  into  unexpected 
intellectual  brilliancy,  the  light  is  chilly  or  is  rendered 
dazzling  only  by  its  intense  profanity,  impurity,  and 
skepticism.  I  am  not  overlooking  exceptions,  nor  am  I 
unmindful  of  the  evangelical  revival  which  took  its  rise 
in  the  midst  of  its  poison  marshes,  and  of  which  I  shall 
speak  later  on.  It  is  to  the  general  character  and  tem- 
per of  this  century,  particularly  during  the  first  fifty  or 
sixty  years,  that  I  direct  attention,  knowing  very  well 
that  there  is  rarely  a  desert  without  a  refreshing  oasis 


lO         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

somewhere.  But  though  the  oases  be  numerous,  it  is 
impossible  to  escape  the  impression  that  the  monoto- 
nous wilderness  dominates  most  of  the  period.  Doctor 
Clarke  says  truly  :  "  Human  kind  never  puts  forth  ex- 
ceptional energy  without  paying  for  it  in  reaction,"  as 
''  the  vigor  of  the  first  Christian  age  was  followed  by 
the  comparative  lifelessness  of  the  second."  ^  And  the 
eighteenth  century  was  the  century  of  reaction.  It 
comes  to  us  as  a  state  between  two  worlds,  "  one  dead, 
the  other  powerless  to  be  born."  The  noble  heroes  of 
the  Commonwealth  had  passed  from  the  view  of  men  ; 
the  struggle  for  the  succession  had  ended  with  the  tri- 
umph of  William  and  Mary;  the  fierce  religious  con- 
flicts, often  reaching  to  the  grandeur  of  tragedy,  had 
subsided  with  the  enactment  of  toleration  ;  and  the  tre- 
mendous strain  under  which  Europe  had  labored,  and 
which  had  been  felt  in  America  also,  had  at  last  re- 
laxed, and  there  ensued  on  the  continent  as  well  as  in 
England  a  condition  of  things  approximating  to  lethargy 
and  exhaustion. 

Writing  of  this  period,  a  recent  author  gives  this 
depressing  illustration  of  its  weariness  and  dullness  : 
<'  From  the  time  of  Algernon  Sidney  to  that  of  Burke, 
it  holds  not  a  breath  of  that  larger  inspiration  and  pas- 
sion which  can  make  a  local  controversy  of  the  moment 
a  treasure  for  all  time."  ^  And  this  was  only  too  true 
of  its  religious  life.  "  In  the  eighteenth  century  .  .  . 
the  Anglican  Church  had  conquered  Romanism  ;  Puri- 
tanism had  sunk  out  of  sight  deep  into  the  hearts  of 
the  ignored  people.  .  .  The  church  had  won  the  day 
and  held  the  field.  And  the  first  thing  it  did  was  to 
'  "Christianity,"  p.  io6,        ^  Scudder,  "Social  Ideals,"  p.  92. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  I  I 

repudiate  its  old  relationships.  It  sought  no  wedlock 
with  poverty,  such  as  Francis  sought  and  Giotto  painted 
in  his  great  fresco.  .  .  The  church  had  become  a  vast 
machine  for  the  patronage  of  morality  and  the  promo- 
tion of  her  own  officers.  How  admirable  an  invest- 
ment is  religion  !  Such  is  the  burden  of  their  plead- 
ing. Sure  gauge  of  respectability  here  and  comfort 
hereafter."  ^ 

The  author  we  are  quoting  furnishes  an  instructive 
example  of  the  preaching  most  highly  esteemed  during 
these  melancholy  days,  in  which  one  seems  to  feel  *' the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  receding  into  infinite  space." 
These  are  some  of  the  edifying  excerpts  : 

The  principal  point  of  wisdom  in  the  conduct  of  human  Hfe  is 
so  to  use  the  enjoyments  of  this  present  world  as  that  they  may 
not  themselves  shorten  the  period  wherein  '  tis  allowed  us  to  enjoy 
them.  .  .  We  are  not  obliged  to  seek  the  kingdom  of  God  ivholly 
or  only  in  a  total  and  absolute  exclusion  of  all  other  desires  (as 
some  melancholy,  well-disposed  persons  may  be  apt  to  imagine), 
but  only  that  we  are  to  seek  it  chiefly  and  in  the  first  place.  .  . 
We  are  required  only  to  retrench  our  vain  and  foolish  expenses  ; 
not  to  sell  all  and  give  to  the  poor,  but  to  be  charitable  out  of  the 
superfluity  of  our  plenty  ;  not  to  lay  down  our  lives  or  even  the 
comfortable  enjoyments  of  life,  but  to  forsake  the  unreasonable 
and  unfruitful  pleasures  of  sin.^ 

A  sleek,  comfortable,  prudent  kind  of  piety  this,  such 
as  had  not  been  baptized  in  the  sacrificial  spirit  of  the 
Cross,  and  which  would  have  given  a  very  poor  account 
of  itself  if  it  had  been  exposed  to  the  fires  of  martyr- 
dom. 

Christianity  had  indeed  fallen  on  days  of  deplorable 


Scudder,  "  vSocial  Ideals,"  p.  93.     '^  Clarke's  "Sermons,"  Ser.  XVII. 


12         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

degradation.  Of  the  godless  condition  of  the  nation, 
even  Oliver  Goldsmith  writes.  His  testimony  is  sad 
enough  : 

No  person  who  has  traveled  will  contradict  me  when  I  aver  that 
the  lower  orders  of  mankind  in  other  countries  testify  on  every 
occasion  the  profoundest  awe  of  religion,  while  in  England  they 
are  scarcely  awakened  to  a  sense  of  its  duties,  even  in  circum- 
stances of  the  greatest  distress.  This  dissolute  and  fearless  con- 
duct foreigners  are  apt  to  attribute  to  climate  and  constitution. 
May  not  the  vulgar,  being  pretty  much  neglected  in  our  exhorta- 
tions from  the  pulpit,  be  a  conspiring  cause  ?  Our  divines  seldom 
stoop  to  their  mean  capacities  ;  and  they  who  want  instruction 
most  find  least  in  our  religious  assemblies.^ 

That  is,  the  shepherds  were  indifferent  to  the  needs  of 
the  flock,  and  would  scarcely  condescend  to  provide  pas- 
ture lands  for  the  sheep  of  inferior  stock,  whose  wool 
was  too  scant  to  be  worth  the  shearing.  Nor  is  this 
surprising  when  it  is  remembered  that,  as  late  as  1797, 
professors  of  religion  in  high  places  contemplated  with 
apprehension  the  enlightenment  of  the  people  through 
the  agency  of  the  Sabbath-school.  One  of  this  class 
wrote  in  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  that  the  Sunday- 
school  "  is  subversive  of  that  order,  that  industry,  that 
peace  and  tranquillity  which  constitute  the  happiness  of 
society";  and  that  "so  far  from  deserving  encourage- 
ment and  applause,  it  merits  our  contempt  and  ought  to 
be  exploded  as  the  vain,  chimerical  institution  of  a  vis- 
ionary projector."  And  in  the  last  year  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  the  Bishop  of  Rochester,  while  profess- 
ing to  favor  these  schools,  yet  inconsistently  enough 
warns  his  clergy  against  them,  because  in  them  "  the 


Sinclair,  "Leaders  of  Thought,"  p.  174. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  1 3 

minds  of  the  children  of  the  very  lowest  order  are  en- 
lightened— that  is  to  say,  taught  to  despise  religion  and 
the  laws  and  all  subordination."  He  also  denominates 
them  "  schools  of  rebellion  and  Jacobinical  politics,  that 
is  to  say,  schools  of  atheism  and  disloyalty." 

If  such  sentiments  as  these  could  find  utterance  at  a 
time  when  the  era  of  spiritual  stagnation  was  drawing 
to  a  close,  we  can  very  readily  credit  Goldsmith's  pic- 
ture of  an  earlier  day,  when  immorality  and  profaneness 
were  so  notorious  that  England  was  regarded  as  having 
apostatized  from  the  Christian  faith. ^  Every  church  or 
nation,  whatever  its  professions,  if  it  neglects  the  relig- 
ious training  of  the  masses,  has  unquestionably  departed 
from  the  service  of  that  Master  whom  the  common  peo- 
ple heard  gladly,  and  who  was  anointed  to  preach  good 
tidings  to  the  poor,  to  proclaim  release  to  the  captives, 
and  to  set  at  liberty  them  that  are  bound. ^ 

Bishop  Butler  more  than  once  comments  on  this 
wretched  apostasy.  In  the  preface  to  his  "Analogy," 
he  declared  that  in  his  time  ''  it  had  come  to  be  taken 
for  granted  that  Christianity  is  not  so  much  as  a  subject 
of  inquiry,  but  that  it  is  now  at  length  discovered  to  be 
fictitious."  When  delivering  a  charge  to  the  clergy,  he 
says:  '' The  general  decay  of  religion  in  this  nation  is 
now  observed  by  every  one,  and  has  been  for  some  time 
the  complaint  of  all  serious  persons.  .  .  As  different 
ages  have  been  distinguished  by  different  sorts  of  par- 
ticular errors  and  vices,  the  deplorable  distinction  of 
ours  is  an  avowed  scorn  of  religion  in  some  and  a  grow- 
ing disregard  of  it  in  the  generality."  Others  concur 
with  the  bishop  in   his  disheartening  statements.     Ac- 

1  Tyermau's  "  V^esley,  "  p.  174.  ^  Luke  4  :  18,  19. 


14         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

cording  to  Lecky,  "  Addison  pronounced  it  an  unques- 
tionable truth  that  there  was  less  appearance  of  religion 
in  England  than  in  any  neighboring  State  or  kingdom, 
and  that  Montesquieu  summed  up  his  observations  on 
English  life  by  declaring,  no  doubt  with  great  exaggera- 
tion, that  there  was  no  religion  in  England  ;  that  the 
subject,  if  mentioned  in  society,  excited  nothing  but 
laughter  ;  and  that  not  more  than  four  or  five  members 
of  the  House  of  Commons  were  regular  attendants  at 
church."  ^  A  fair  estimate  of  the  widespread  laxity  of 
belief  may  be  inferred  from  the  popularity  of  the  deists 
and  skeptics  whose  writings  for  a  season  were  hailed 
with  every  token  of  approval.  Bolingbroke,  Shaftes- 
bury, Woolston,  Chubb,  Collins,  Tindal,  and  Toland — 
men  of  very  unequal  gifts  and  endowments  —  were 
eagerly  listened  to  as  they  argued  against  the  proba- 
bility of  a  religion  designed  to  be  universal  being 
founded  on  a  perplexing  series  of  historical  evidences, 
or  as  they  set  forth  the  moral  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
inspiration,  or  as  they  eloquently  contended  for  the 
sufficiency  of  natural  religion.  But  a  yet  deeper  im- 
pression may  be  gained  of  the  extent  of  this  '*  falling 
away"  from  the  prevailing  corruption  and  black  infamy 
of  the  social  life  which  disgraced  a  country  where  the 
cross  of  Christ  had  been  the  symbol  of  its  faith  for 
centuries. 

Every  now  and  then  some  chronic  pessimist  obtrudes 
himself  on  the  public  with  his  harsh,  strident  philosophy 
of  a  world  made  for  misery  and  becoming  necessarily 
more  wicked  and  miserable  as  it  grows  older.  Of  course, 
there  are   evils  and  enormities  enough  at  the  present 

1  Lecky,  "England  in  Eighteenth  Century,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  579. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN 


15 


hour  to  afford  some  foundation  for  this  doctrine  of 
horror  and  despair.  These,  we  admit,  are  terrible,  and 
in  view  of  our  light  and  resources,  are,  in  the  main,  in- 
excusable. But  when  they  are  placed  side  by  side  with 
^the  brutalities,  cruelties,  animalism,  and  heartless  sav- 
agery of  the  eighteenth  century,  they  are  but  specks  of 
blackness  on  the  surface  of  a  golden  sun.  The  Sabbath 
Day,  considering  the  difference  in  the  demands  of  the 
two  civilizations,  was  then  outrageously  neglected  in 
England,  especially  in  the  cities,  and  particularly  among 
the  upper  classes  of  society.  "  People  of  fashion,"  ac- 
cording to  Archbishop  Seeker,  ''  especially  of  that  sex 
which  ascribes  to  itself  most  knowledge,  have  nearly 
thrown  off  all  observation  of  the  Lord's  Day ;  .  .  and 
if  to  avoid  scandal  they  sometimes  vouchsafe  their 
attendance  on  divine  worship  in  the  country,  they  sel- 
dom or  never  do  it  in  town."  Irreverence  in  the  house 
of  God  was  a  common  fault ;  and  on  the  Lord's  Day 
cabinet  councils  were  frequently  held  and  cabinet  din- 
ners sometimes  given,  and  Sunday  concerts — though 
they  were  not  then  called  "sacred" — were  enjoyed  by 
the  aristocracy,  and  even  card  parties  were  not  unknown 
among  its  members.  But  the  flagrant  desecration  of 
this  holy  day  was  only  symptomatic  of  the  very  general 
desecration  of  nearly  everything  virtuous  and  of  good 
report.  The  realm  was  a  sink  of  all  vices,  and  a  sewer 
for  all  the  baser  passions.  What  shall  be  said  of  the 
moral  tone  of  a  community  where  one  hundred  and  sixty 
different  crimes  were  punishable  with  death,  and  where 
capital  punishment  was  inflicted  as  plays  are  presented 
at  theatres,  publicly  and  for  money  ?  Tickets  could  be 
purchased  for  the  exquisite  privilege  of  seeing  huzzies 


l6         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

whipped  in  the  Bridewell,  and  women  were  often  ex- 
posed in  the  pillory  to  the  jeers  and  coarse  insults  of 
the  brutal  mob.  Last  century  the  impecunious  inmates 
of  debtors'  prisons  in  England  were  generally  dependent 
for  bare  subsistence  upon  the  charity  of  the  generous, 
who  dropped  their  dole  into  baskets  let  down  from  the 
gaol  windows,  and  not  a  few  died  from  starvation.  ''  In 
1759,  Doctor  Johnson  computed  the  number  of  these 
debtors  at  not  less  than  twenty  thousand,  and  asserted 
that  one  out  of  every  four  died  every  year  from  the 
treatment  they  received."  ♦*  Prisoners  rarely  could  es- 
cape, even  if  they  broke  loose,  for  mastiffs  were  kept  to 
pursue  them  ;  and  of  a  thousand  sent  in  one  assignment 
to  Botany  Bay  of  both  sexes,  four-fifths  perished  before 
land  was  reached."^  So  much  of  callous  indifference 
to  suffering  and  shamelessness  prevailed  that  some 
parents  would  compel  their  children  to  walk  to  school 
with  fourteen  pounds'  weight  tied  to  their  legs  to  keep 
them  from  running  away.  Drunkenness,  profanity, 
gambling,  and  general  profligacy  reigned  throughout 
the  realm.  Gentlemen  high  in  position,  representatives 
of  government,  like  Oxford  and  Bolingbroke,  were  not 
ashamed  to  be  intoxicated  in  the  presence  of  their  sov- 
ereign ;  while  retailers  of  gin  enticed  the  poorer  classes 
to  their  ruin  by  the  announcement  that  they  could  be 
made  drunk  for  a  penny  and  dead  drunk  for  twopence.^ 
The  streets  of  the  cities  were  insecure,  Horace  Walpole 
declaring,  in  1751,  that  ''One  is  forced  to  travel,  even 
at  noon,  as  if  he  were  going  to  battle."  Literature  was 
to  an  unparalleled  degree  coarse,  debasing,  licentious, 

Mlarris,  "Robert  Raikes,"  p.  io6. 
"^  Lecky.  "England  in  Eighteenth  Century,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  519. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  1 7 

as  the  pages  of  Smollett,  Defoe,  Fielding,  and  Coventry 
illustrate.  Kings  ''lived  publicly  with  mistresses"; 
the  theatre  was  beginning  to  struggle  out  of  the  mire 
into  which  it  was  plunged  at  the  Restoration,  but  it  was 
still  indescribably  filthy ;  and  while  the  loyal  Commons 
were  debating  marriage  bills,  the  real  sanctity  of  the 
marriage  tie  had  seriously  declined  among  the  more 
exclusive  classes  of  the  realm.  Thus,  from  every  point 
of  view,  the  state  of  England,  during  a  large  portion  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  presents  the  appearance  of  an 
ominous,  overhanging  cloud,  which,  notwithstanding  the 
flashes  of  genius — the  genius  of  great  writers,  great 
preachers,  great  statesmen,  and  great  soldiers — which 
frequently  illuminated  its  darkness  and  for  the  moment 
made  it  look  brilliant  as  sunrise,  was  charged  with 
muttering  thunders  and  heavy  with  possible  wide-sweep- 
ing inundations  and  devastation. 

It  is  usually  assumed  that  at  this  time  England  was 
the  darkest  spot  within  the  territories  of  civilized  na- 
tions. This  very  nice  point  in  comparative  corruption 
and  decay  I  do  not  feel  called  on  to  discuss.  The 
capitals  of  Europe  were  all  bad  enough  ;  and  even  if  it 
could  be  proven  that  Great  Britain  was  primate  in  the 
hierarchy  of  degeneracy,  as  many  suspect,  but  which 
may  be  challenged,  she  was  not  alone  in  her  sin,  and 
certainly  had  many  close  competitors  if  she  had  no 
superiors.  She  may,  therefore,  be  taken  as  a  type,  even 
though  an  exaggerated  one,  of  the  darkness,  mental  and 
moral,  religious  and  social,  which  enswathed  the  most 
highly  favored  parts  of  the  world  over  a  hundred  years 
ago. 

If  we  turn  to  Germany,  we  find  petty  States,  and  with 

B 


1 8         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

them  a  small  and  meagre  intellectual  life.  The  glitter- 
ing, high-heeled,  periwigged  style  of  the  gnuid  ino- 
narque  had  not  yet  lost  its  hold  on  the  Teuton  ;  the 
Olympus  of  Versailles  still  fascinated,  and  the  liberator, 
Lessing,  though  born,  had  hardly  yet  appeared  in  the 
wilderness,  exposing  the  vapidness  and  ridiculousness 
of  the  French  stage  and  of  French  letters,  and  prepar- 
ing the  way  for  a  new  era  in  German  thought,  art,  and 
religion.  If  we  direct  our  eyes  toward  France  itself, 
the  one  nation  that,  more  than  any  other,  influenced  the 
culture,  convictions,  and  conduct  of  continental  peoples 
throughout  the  century,  we  are  confronted  by  the  Re- 
gent and  Louis  XV.,  with  their  erotic  and  putrid  civil- 
izations. There  Holbach,  Helvetius,  and  Diderot  ex- 
tolled atheism ;  and  there  cultivated  men  like  Voltaire 
and  Rousseau,  who  still  professed  to  believe  in  natural 
religion,  and  ecclesiastics,  such  as  Talleyrand,  the  Abbe 
Raynal,  the  Abbe  Sieyes,  and  the  Abbe  Deschamps,  had 
lost  confidence  in  the  dominant  church,  and  while  ridi- 
culing its  assumptions,  fiercely  attacked  the  supernatural 
claims  of  Christianity.^  And  yet,  with  the  growth  and 
advance  of  such  opinions  and  sentiments,  freedom  of 
conscience  was  not  permitted  to  multitudes  of  the  people. 
Under  Fleury,  in  1728,  to  print  anything  contrary  to 
papal  bulls  incurred  a  sentence  to  prison  or  the  galleys. 
Protestants  were  condemned  to  incarceration  for  their 
faith.  Children  were  separated  from  their  parents,  and 
women  were  flogged  on  account  of  heresy;  and  even  in 
1770,  the  bishops  drew  up  a  document  to  the  king  *'on 
the  dangerous  consequences  of  liberty  of  thinking  and 
printing."     But  it  should  be  observed  that  those  who 

^  Taine's  '■'■  Ancien  Regime,''''  pp.  381-384. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  1 9 

were  prominent  in  repudiating  tlie  authority  of  the 
church  were  not  particularly  concerned  for  the  rights 
of  their  fellow-citizens  suffering  from  persecution.  As 
Hobbes  and  Bolingbroke  in  England  were  on  the  side 
of  kings,  so  in  France,  Bayle  denounced  the  democracy 
of  the  Huguenots;  and  Voltaire  himself,  with  all  his 
avowed  liberalism,  sympathized  with  royalty  and  all  that 
it  signifies,  and  could  not  approve  of  that  universal  suf- 
frage which  gives  to  a  man  who  possesses  neither  house 
nor  land  a  voice  in  the  affairs  of  society.  His  spirit 
finds  expression  in  such  declarations  as  these  :  '*  The 
true  public  is  always  a  minority.  The  rest  is  the  vul- 
gar." ''What  the  populace  requires  is  guidance,  not 
instruction;  it  is  not  worthy  of  the  latter."  '*We  have 
never  pretended  to  be  enlightened  shoemakers  and 
servants."  ^  Without  going  any  further,  a  fair  idea 
may  be  gained  of  the  empires  and  kingdoms  of  the  con- 
tinent from  these  brief  allusions.  Unquestionably  if  the 
storm  center,  black  and  oppressive,  was,  during  many 
gloomy  years,  in  England,  it  was  widely  extended  and 
overspread  the  most  refined  and  cultured  communities 
on  earth.  Its  borders  even  overshadowed  the  colonial 
settlers  in  North  America. 

Dr.  Leonard  Woolsey  Bacon  says  : 

The  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  show  the  lowest 
low-water  mark  of  the  lowest  ebb-tide  of  spiritual  life  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  American  church.  The  demoralization  of  army  life, 
the  fury  of  political  factions,  the  catch-penny  materialist  moral- 
ity of  Franklin,  the  philosophic  deism  of  men  like  Jefferson,  and 
the  popular  ribaldry  of  Tom  Paine,  had  wrought  together,  with 
the  other  outward  influences,  to  bring  about  a  condition  of  things 
which  to  the  eye  of  faith  seemed  almost  desperate. 

Woltaire's  "  QLzivres,'^  Vol,  LI.,  p.  103,  etc. 


20         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

He  quotes  from  Lyman  Beecher's  account  of  Yale 
College  at  the  accession  of  President  Dvvight,  1795, 
this  striking  passage  : 

Before  he  came,  the  college  was  in  a  most  ungodly  state.  The 
college  church  was  almost  extinct.  Most  of  the  students  were 
skeptical  and  rowdies  were  plenty.  Wine  and  liquors  were  kept 
in  many  rooms  ;  intemperance,  profanity,  gambling,  and  licentious- 
ness were  common.  .  .  That  was  the  day  of  the  infidelity  of  the 
Tom  Paine  school.  Boys  that  dressed  flax  in  the  barn,  as  I  used 
to,  read  Tom  Paine  and  believed  him  ;  I  read  him  and  fought 
him  all  the  way.  But  most  of  the  class  before  me  were  infidels 
and  called  each  other  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  D'  Alembert,  etc. 

We  are  also  reminded  that  there  were  only  two  among 
the  students  of  Princeton  College  who  professed  belief 
in  Christianity  in  1782,  and  that  the  General  Assem- 
bly, 1798,  thus  portrays  the  prevailing  impiety:  ''The 
profligacy  and  corruption  of  the  public  morals  have  ad- 
vanced with  a  progress  proportionate  to  our  declension 
in  religion.  Profaneness,  pride,  luxury,  injustice,  in- 
temperance, lewdness,  and  every  species  of  debauch- 
ery and  loose  indulgence  greatly  abound."  Theodore 
Parker,  in  one  of  his  addresses,  said  : 

It  is  easy  to  praise  the  fathers  of  New  England,  easier  to  praise 
them  for  virtues  they  did  not  possess  than  to  discriminate  and 
fairly  judge  those  remarkable  men.  .  .  Let  me  mention  a  fact  or 
two.  It  is  recorded  in  the  probate  office  that,  in  1678,  at  the  fu- 
neral of  Mrs.  Mary  Norton  .  .  .  fifty-one  gallons  and  a  half  of  the 
best  Malaga  wine  were  consumed  by  the  mourners.  .  .  Towns  pro- 
vided intoxicating  drink  at  the  funeral  of  their  paupers.  .  .  Affairs 
had  come  to  such  a  pass  that,  in  1742,  the  General  Court  forbid 
the  use  of  wine  and  rum  at  funerals. 

1  Bacon,  "Hist.  Am.  Christianity,"  pp.  230,  231. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  21 

Edwards  testifies  regarding  his  own  town,  Northamp- 
ton :  "  There  was  more  degeneracy  among  the  young 
than  ever  before."  ''Licentiousness,  for  some  years, 
greatly  prevailed  among  the  youth."  ''The  Sabbath 
was  extensively  profaned  and  the  decorum  of  the  sanc- 
tuary not  unfrequently  disturbed."  And  Jefferson  wit- 
nesses to  the  degradation  of  the  press  :  "  Nothing  can 
now  be  believed  which  is  seen  in  a  newspaper.  Truth 
itself  becomes  suspicious  by  being  put  into  that  pol- 
luted vehicle."  ^  It  is  not  necessary  to  quote  from  the 
"  Autobiography "  of  Peter  Cartwright,  or  from  the 
"  Charges  "  and  others  writings  of  Bishop  Meade,  for 
confirmation  of  this  gloomy  picture  of  atheism,  infidel- 
ity, coarseness,  profanity,  drunkenness,  and  general  dis- 
soluteness. The  colors  are  black  enough  and  need  no 
deepening. 

But  we  may,  in  passing,  be  permitted  to  inquire 
whether  we  have  not,  in  the  deplorable  immoralities  of 
communities  founded  by  scrupulously  conscientious 
Christians,  an  illustration  of  what  is  likely  to  follow 
when  their  descendants  carry  the  principles  of  righteous 
restraint  into  unreasoning  asceticism.  The  Puritan 
colonists  for  some  years  prior  to  the  Revolution  were 
noted  for  the  most  singular  inconsistencies  in  conduct 
and  for  a  casuistry  at  once  artificial  and  misleading,  and 
which  can  only  be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition 
that,  however  deeply  versed  they  may  have  been  in  the 
doctrines  of  grace,  they  had  never  given  much  sober 
thought  to  the  doctrines  of  ethics.  MacMaster  presents 
a  portrait  of  the  grim  religionist  of  those  times  which 
is  well  worth  reproducing  : 

1  Dorchester,  ''Problem  of  Relig.  Progress,"  pp.  195,  196. 


22         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

He  held  it  to  be  an  abomination  to  read  a  novel,  to  see  a  play, 
to  go  to  a  dance,  to  make  a  jest,  to  sing  a  comic  song,  to  eat  a 
dinner  cooked  on  Sunday,  or  to  give  a  present  on  Christmas  Day. 
Yet  he  would,  at  times,  so  far  forget  his  austerity  as  to  play  a  game 
of  draughts  with  his  wife,  or  have  a  romp  of  fox  and  geese  with 
his  children.  His  conscience  did  not  smite  him  when  he  drank 
palm  tea  at  a  quilting,  or  listened  to  the  achievements  of  his  better 
half  at  the  spinning  match.  He  drank  ale  and  cider  at  the  apple- 
paring  bees  ;  he  laughed  as  loudly  as  any  one  when,  at  the  corn- 
husking,  the  lucky  finder  of  the  red  ear  kissed  his  favorite  daugh- 
ter. But  the  moment  the  fiddles  were  produced,  he  went  home 
to  his  pipe  and  sermons,  or  to  a  long  talk  with  the  schoolmaster.^ 

The  shreds  and  tatters  of  this  kind  of  casuistry  I 
have  frequently  met  with  during  the  earher  years  of  my 
ministry  in  remote  rural  communities.  I  have  known 
young  girls  to  be  excluded  from  the  church  on  ac- 
count of  dancing,  while  their  accusers  were  retained  in 
membership,  although  they  were  whisky  distillers  and 
whisky  drinkers  and  even  worse.  Professors  of  relig- 
ion who  held  slaves  in  some  parishes  would  not  hold  fel- 
lowship with  those  brethren  who  visited  the  theatre ;  and 
in  others,  men  might  chew  tobacco  in  church,  but  they 
must  not  presume  to  smile.  Now,  it  is  worth  noticing 
that  this  crude  and  contradictory  asceticism  has  always 
had  a  fatal  tendency  toward  irreligion  and  infidelity. 
And  in  this,  as  in  so  many  other  things,  extremes  meet. 
What  illegitimate  self-indulgence  leads  to,  unreasonable 
self-mortification  sometimes  leads  to  as  well.  In  France, 
on  the  one  hand,  excessive  laxity  in  religious  opinions 
and  unrestrained  enjoyments  promoted  atheism,  lawless- 
ness, and  public  corruption  ;  and  in  New  England,  on 
the  other,  the  suppression  of  natural  gladness,  the  in- 

^  MacMaster,  "People  of  the  United  States,"  p.  20. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  23 

sistence  on  irrational  distinctions  between  various  means 
of  recreation  and  tlie  persistent  endeavor  to  array  hu- 
manity in  the  strait-jacket  of  an  incoherent  asceticism 
resulted  in  hypocrisy,  viciousness,  and  derisive  infidelity. 
Heinrich  Heine  relates  the  tradition  of  the  clerics  and 
the  nightingale,  which  conveys  a  moral  not  inappropriate 
to  this  particular  folly.  During  the  council  of  Basel, 
1433,  a  company  of  clerics  were  walking  in  a  wood  near 
the  town  and  were  arguing  about  annates,  expectatives, 
and  reservations,  when  they  were  saluted  by  the  carol- 
ing and  sobbing  notes  of  the  nightingale.  They  were 
at  first  charmed,  they  felt  in  a  blessed  mood,  and  their 
sympathies  were  quickened  beneath  the  bleak  snows  of 
their  icy  scholarship.  But  at  last  one  among  them, 
more  pious  than  the  rest,  concluded  that  the  bird  could 
be  none  other  than  an  emissary  of  the  devil,  seeking  to 
divert  them  from  their  Christian  converse  by  its  sedu- 
cing strains.  He  straightway  began  to  exorcise  the  evil 
spirit,  and  it  is  recorded  that  the  nightingale  imme- 
diately rose  laughingly  from  his  perch  in  a  blossoming 
lime  tree,  and,  as  he  flew  away,  replied  :  "Yes,  I  am  an 
evil  spirit."  They,  however,  who  had  been  entranced 
by  the  song  sickened  that  very  day  and  died  shortly 
thereafter.^  And  from  their  dolorous  fortune  the 
monkish  chronicler  would  have  us  learn  that  to  yield 
even  to  innocent  earthly  delights  carries  with  it  a  fatal 
ending. 

But  I  interpret  the  legend  differently.  When  we  re- 
ject the  music  that  God  sends,  and  count  that  evil  which 
refreshes  and  delights,  we  are  abandoned  to  our  illusion 
as  the  nightingale  abandoned  the  prelates  and  the  doc- 

1  Heine,  "Religion  and  Philosophy  in  Germany,"  p.  26. 


24         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tors  ;  and  then  speedily  the  spiritual  life  pines  and  sick- 
ens, while  not  far  off  waits  the  tomb,  ready  to  swallow 
up  our  poor  dead  faith.  And  thus  the  colonists  of  the 
eighteenth  century  in  their  protest  against  the  world, 
the  flesh,  and  the  devil,  came  in  their  blind  zeal  to  in- 
clude things  which  in  themselves  and  of  themselves 
were  not  vicious,  and  certainly  were  not  more  vicious 
than  some  things  which  they  allowed,  and  in  a  little 
while  the  church  gave  signs  of  declining  spiritual  health 
and  even  of  approaching  death. 

But  she  was  not  doomed  to  waste  away  and  perish, 
either  in  New  England  or  in  the  great  countries  beyond 
the  sea.  Even  when  her  condition  was  most  alarming, 
when  her  pulse  was  lowest,  and  when  the  vital  spark 
seemed  but  to  glimmer,  even  then  refreshing  and  re- 
newing agencies  were  being  called  into  activity.  We 
have  been  groping  our  way  through  the  night  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  the  painful  journey  has  been 
indispensable  to  an  appreciation  of  its  evening  twilight, 
a  twilight  blending  with  the  dawning  of  the  nineteenth 
and  having  in  its  bosom  the  promise  of  Christian  reju- 
venescence and  advancement  ;  and  we  are  now  ready  to 
consider  the  character  of  this  twilight,  to  observe  its 
beginnings  deep  in  the  heart  of  night,  and  to  trace  its 
slow  and  steady  progress  toward  the  morning. 

Its  first  gray  sign  of  hope  appeared  where  least  it 
could  have  been  expected^in  the  religious  firmament. 
A  spiritual  quickening  of  the  most  extraordinary  scope 
and  sweep  preceded  the  other  mighty  movements  which 
were  destined  to  revolutionize  society.  At  a  time  when 
the  educated  world  regarded  the  victory  of  deism  as 
complete ;  and  when  orthodoxy  was  dumb  on  the  doc- 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  2  5 

trines  of  its  creed  and  was  content  to  skirmish  along 
the  outposts  of  the  faith  ;  and  at  the  time  when  Eng- 
glishmen  were  being  enriched  by  slavery  and  the  uni- 
versities were  being  degraded  by  the  learned  ignorance 
and  inane  indifference  described  by  Gibbon,  suddenly 
the  morning  began  to  peep  through  the  night.  The 
natal  place  of  the  new  revival  was  none  other  than  the 
famous  Oxford,  from  whose  classic  halls  Wycliffe's  re- 
forming company  of  poor  priests  had  gone  forth  in  the 
fourteenth  century  and  in  whose  bosom  a  very  different 
agitation  was  to  originate  in  the  nineteenth.  Lincoln 
College,  the  special  seat  of  the  gracious  quickening,  was 
founded  by  Bishop  Fleming,  who  entertained  the  great- 
est horror  of  everything  approaching  the  heresy  of 
Wycliffe,  and  whose  successor.  Bishop  Rotherham,  en- 
joined the  expulsion  of  any  Fellow  convicted  of  depar- 
ture from  the  Anglican  establishment ;  and  their  amaze- 
ment and  indignation  can  readily  be  imagined  could 
they  have  foreseen  that  Methodism  would  be  born  and 
cradled  within  its  walls.  What  a  shock  they  would 
have  experienced  had  they  been  able  with  prophetic 
vision  to  anticipate  the  "  Godly  Club  "  and  the  work  of 
John  Wesley,  a  work  which  attained  not  only  great  im- 
portance in  England,  but  also  in  North  America  and 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  whose  animating  prin- 
ciple has  been  thus  defined  by  the  German,  Schnecken- 
burger,  as  ''the  subjectivity  of  direct  feeling  and  of  in- 
ward experience,"  in  contradistinction  "  to  the  sub- 
jectivity of  the  practical  intellect  "  as  accentuated  by 
Arminianism  and  Socinianism. 

The  story  of  Wesley's  life  has  been  often  told,  and 
need  not  here  be  repeated  ;  but  the  genesis  of  his  spir- 


26         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

itual  devotion  may  well  claim  our  attention.  In  1727, 
he  read  Law's  "  Serious  Call  and  Christian  Perfection," 
and  it  wrought  a  great  change  in  his  feelings.  **  I  was 
convinced  more  than  ever,"  he  says,  *'  of  the  impossi- 
bility of  being  half  a  Christian,  and  determined  to  be 
all-devoted  to  God,  and  to  give  him  all  my  soul,  my 
body,  and  my  substance."  And  a  biographical  writer 
adds  :  ''The  light  flowed  in  so  mightily  on  his  soul  that 
everything  appeared  in  a  new  view."  ^  "  His  philoso- 
phy and  theology  were  permanently  elevated  and  en- 
riched through  the  familiarity  which  he  had  gained 
with  some  at  the  least  of  the  writers  to  whom  Law  had 
introduced  him,  as  well  as  through  the  direct  influence 
of  Law  himself." 

But  there  was  another  influence  which  was  destined 
to  determine  in  no  small  degree  his  religious  devel- 
opment, and  one  that  brings  into  relief  the  solidarity 
as  well  as  the  indestructibility  of  spiritual  forces.  It 
was  in  1735,  that  John  and  his  brother  Charles  accom- 
panied General  Oglethorpe  to  Georgia,  and  while  on 
the  outward  voyage  were  strangely  impressed  by  the 
deep  piety,  fidelity,  courage,  and  singleness  of  heart 
of  some  Moravian  emigrants,  headed  by  their  bishop, 
Nitschmann.  On  his  return  to  England  a  year  or  so 
later,  he  sought  out  Peter  Bohler,  one  of  this  broth- 
erhood, whose  intercourse  was  of  so  decisive  a  char- 
acter that  it  added  to  Wesley's  spiritual  fervor,  and 
in  effect  seemed  to  produce  something  like  a  second 
and  more  real  conversion.  Not  satisfied,  however,  with 
his  attainments  in  the  divine  life,  he  determined  to  visit 
Herrnhut,  the  chief  seat  of  Moravianism,  and  hold  con- 

^  Riggs,  "Wesley,"  p.  22. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  2/ 

verse  with  its  most  godly  and  brilliant  representative. 
This  fellowship  with  Count  Zinzendorf  brought  with  it 
soul  refreshing  ;  and  though  afterward,  in  1 740,  Wesley 
broke  with  the  Moravians,  and  in  some  respects  changed 
his  views  of  both  Bohler  and  Zinzendorf,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  of  his  indebtedness  to  them  for  much  that 
rendered  his  own  character  blameless  and  beautiful. 

It  is  interesting,  in  this  connection,  to  observe  the 
intimate  relations  between  the  spiritual  experiences  of 
various  periods  and  of  all  lands.  The  Moravians  were 
the  remnants  of  the  Hussites  and  the  VValdenses,  the 
survival  under  a  different  name  of  the  heroic  orders  of 
Christians  who,  throughout  the  dark  ages,  never  per- 
mitted the  vital  spark  of  piety  to  perish,  and  never  aban- 
doned the  rights  of  conscience  at  the  mandate  of  arrogant 
intolerance.  By  sanctity  and  spiritual  simplicity  they 
were  allied  with  the  earliest  martyrs  and  the  latest ;  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  holy 
fire  of  faith  burned  on  their  altar,  from  whose  flame, 
before  its  close,  there  should  be  kindled  a  new  spirit  of 
devotion  in  England  and  America.  What  effect  the 
'*  pietism"  of  Germany  may  have  had  upon  them,  and 
how  far  Spener,  Schade,  Francke,  Breithaupt,  who 
added  lustre  to  the  earlier  days  of  the  University  at 
Halle,  may  have  modified  their  opinions,  I  am  not  called 
on  to  decide ;  but  unquestionably  the  whole  school, 
through  Zinzendorf,  became  a  determining  factor  in  the 
religious  revival  of  the  century. 

But  the  revival  itself,  whatever  its  origin,  was  won- 
derful, alike  in  its  extent  and  in  its  power.  What  the 
mechanical  morals  of  sleepy  churchmen  could  not  do, 
this    gracious   quickening,   ablaze  with    love    and    zeal, 


28         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

accomplished.  Poor,  neglected  miners  heard  for  the 
first  time  that  this  world  is  the  outcome  of  divine  love, 
and  that  they  themselves  were  not  forgotten  in  the 
Father's  compassion.  All  this  was  as  much  a  revela- 
tion to  them  as  the  preaching  of  the  apostles  was  to  the 
slaves  of  Rome.  They  began  to  feel  a  new  dignity  and 
to  breathe  a  new  hope.  Vast  multitudes  gathered  on 
heath  and  common  to  listen  to  the  words  of  Wesley 
or  of  Whitefield,  and  everywhere  striking  conversions 
occurred  and  reprobates  were  moved  to  repentance. 
Not  a  few  of  the  clergy,  particularly  of  those  who  had 
no  sympathy  with  evangelical  doctrine,  looked  with  sus- 
picion on  the  unusual  excitement,  for  then,  as  now,  a 
gospel  that  agitates  the  conscience  and  shakes  the  soul 
out  of  its  indifference,  and  does  anything  more  than 
conduce  to  the  self-complacency  of  the  hearer,  was  re- 
garded in  many  quarters  as  a  species  of  ignorant  and 
fanatical  rhetoric.  Many  persons,  more  gifted  than  the 
Duchess  of  Buckingham,  shared  with  her  grace  in  the 
opinions  she  expressed  to  Lady  Huntington  concerning 
the  teachings  of  Whitefield  and  his  companions.  <'  I 
think,  your  ladyship,"  she  wrote,  "their  doctrines  are 
most  repulsive  and  strongly  tinctured  with  impertinence 
and  disrespect  toward  their  superiors,  in  perpetually  en- 
deavoring to  level  all  ranks  and  do  away  with  all  dis- 
tinctions. It  is  monstrous  to  be  told  that  you  have  a 
heart  as  sinful  as  the  common  wretches  that  crawl  the 
earth.  This  is  highly  offensive  and  insulting,  and  I 
cannot  but  wonder  that  your  ladyship  should  relish  sen- 
timents so  much  at  variance  with  high  rank  and  good 
breeding."  Nevertheless,  and  notwithstanding  adverse 
criticisms,  the  good  work  went  on,  of  course  with  vary- 


THE    DUSK   AND    DAWN  29 

ing  fortunes  and  with  seasons  of  ebb  and  flow.  But  its 
effect  on  society  became  more  and  more  manifest.  It 
became  the  source  and  spring  of  social  reforms  ;  and 
writers  of  approved  abihty  have  declared  that  it  averted 
from  England  the  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution,  as 
it  accomplished  by  peaceable  means  what  in  France,  not 
at  the  time  sharing  these  spiritual  experiences,  could 
only  be  brought  about  by  convulsion  and  violence. 

Contemporaneous  with  the  Wesleyan  movement,  the 
"  Great  Awakening,"  as  it  is  called,  began  under  Jonathan 
Edwards  in  New  England.  These  simultaneous  quick- 
enings,  occurring  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  seem  to 
bear  evidence  of  a  common  origin  in  the  Divine  Spirit. 
They  are  heavenly  fires  kindled  by  the  same  gracious 
hand  on  widely  separated  mountain  peaks,  having  no 
direct,  visible  connection  with  each  other.  Thus  when 
the  flame  began  to  shed  its  light  on  the  mother-land  it 
flashed  out  over  the  colonies  as  well. 

The  human  means  employed  in  the  New  World 
seems  to  have  been  a  series  of  sermons  on  the  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  grace,  from  which  we  may  again 
learn  that,  whether  these  doctrines  as  then  preached  are 
longer  credible  to  reason,  there  must  be  something 
more  and  something  deeper  than  the  inculcation  of 
moral  precepts  to  effect  any  marked  transformation  in 
the  spiritual  life.  In  his  ''  Narrative  of  Surprising  Con- 
versions," Edwards  thus  writes  of  this  work  of  God  : 

As  it  was  carried  on  and  the  number  of  new  saints  multiplied, 
it  soon  made  a  glorious  alteration  in  the  town,  so  that  in  the 
spring  and  summer,  A.  d.  1735,  the  town  seemed  to  be  full  of  the 
presence  of  God.  It  was  never  so  full  of  love,  nor  so  full  of  joy, 
and  yet  so  full  of  distress  as  then.    There  were  remarkable  tokens 


30         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

of  God's  presence  in  almost  every  house.  It  was  a  time  of  joy 
in  families  on  the  account  of  salvation  being  brought  to  them  ; 
parents  rejoicing  over  their  children  as  being  new-born,  and  hus- 
bands over  their  wives,  and  wives  over  their  husbands. 

Nor  were  these  blessed  experiences  confined  to 
Northampton,  for  they  were  participated  in  by  many 
communities  of  the  New  World.  The  wave  of  religious 
power  swept  over  the  Connecticut  Valley,  beat  on  the 
shores  of  New  Jersey,  and  was  felt  in  far-away  Virginia. 

Alas !  this  season  of  refreshing  was  followed  by  de- 
cline, apathy,  and  unbelief,  which  even  the  apostolic 
labors  of  Whitefield,  ending  in  Newburyport,  September 
30,  1770,  could  not  arrest.  The  relapse  was  painful 
and  appalling.  But  the  revival  spirit  was  not  dead.  It 
reasserted  its  power  in  England,  principally  through  the 
philanthropic  labors  of  William  Wilberforce,  who  dis- 
cerned the  vital  connection  between  evangelistic  feeling 
and  social  regeneration  ;  and  it  reappeared  in  this  land 
with  the  beginnings  of  the  American  Republic,  and 
breathed  anew  on  the  people  the  life  from  God,  without 
which  liberty  has  never  endured  and  flourished.  And 
with  the  renewal  of  its  victories,  the  old  century  ended 
and  the  new  commenced.  As  it  were,  just  as  the  in- 
auguration of  Christianity  itself  was  distinguished  by 
the  baptism  of  the  Spirit,  another  Pentecost  with  its 
refreshing  showers  was  vouchsafed  to  the  infant  re- 
public as  a  preparation  for  its  experiment  in  the  art  of 
self-government.  Revivals  were  enjoyed  from  1796, 
and  through  the  ever-memorable  year  1800,  in  Ken- 
tucky, Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  and  elsewhere,  and 
were  frequent  in  all  parts  of  the  country  during  the 
first  two  decades  of  the  present  century. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  3l 

That  these  special  seasons  of  grace  were  of  inestima- 
ble value  to  the  nation  ought  to  be  candidly  admitted, 
even  though  we  censure  the  peculiar  nervous  manifesta- 
tions which  at  times  and  in  certain  localities  compro- 
mised to  some  extent  their  genuine  character.  But  we 
should  be  considerate  in  our  judgment.  Much  may  be 
said  in  extenuation  of  these  damaging  frenzies.  The 
people  among  whom  they  usually  occurred  were  gener- 
ally poor  and  illiterate,  and  had  been  for  years  accus- 
tomed to  the  monotonous  life  of  the  wilderness  or  of 
sparsely  settled  communities.  What  more  natural,  then, 
than  for  them  to  be  excited  by  the  extraordinary  con- 
ditions under  which  they  were  brought  by  the  intense 
fervor  of  the  aroused  evangelists,  and  having  no  com- 
mand of  language  wherewith  to  express  their  over- 
whelming emotions,  to  manifest  the  inner  turmoil  by 
hysterical  twitchings,  jerkings,  and  swooning.?  Such 
phenomena  we  are  bound  to  deplore;  but  the  question 
may  well  be  brought  home  to  those  critics  who  are  dis- 
posed to  magnify  them  out  of  all  proportion,  whether 
these  incidental  physical  excesses  were  not  as  the  mere 
automatic  action  of  the  eyelids  in  comparison  with  the 
more  appalling  moral  and  spiritual  blindness  of  the  age.? 
Was  it  not  infinitely  better  to  incur  the  possibility  of 
such  momentary  exhibitions  of  nervousness  than  to 
have  continued  permanently  in  the  blank,  heartless 
atheism  which  was  blighting  and  blasting  every  human 
hope  ?  Better  that  people  should  lose  their  wits  for  a 
season  than  that  they  should  lose  their  souls.  The 
choice  seems  to  have  been  between  the  revolutionary 
methods  of  the  French  and  the  revival  methods  of  the 
Saxon,   and  a  dispassionate  view  of    the  extremes   in- 


32         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

volved  in  each,  and  of  the  results  attained  by  either, 
must  always  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  advantages 
were  immeasurably  with  the  latter.^ 

But  the  twilight  of  the  two  centuries  was  not  only 
distinguished  by  religious  elevation,  it  was  likewise  re- 
markable for  its  intellectual  resuscitation.  Prof.  Otto 
Pfleiderer,  however,  recognizes  no  intimate  relation 
between  the  two  movements.  He  believes  that  the 
"evangelical"  party  was  so  much  cut  off  from  any 
living  connection  with  the  thought  of  the  age  that  its 
influence  on  its  quickening  must  have  been  exceedingly 
slight.  "The  ultimate  and  profoundest  source  of  this 
mental  revolution,"  he  argues,  "which  at  the  beginning 
of  this  century  s|7i'ead  through  all  cultured  nations, 
must  be  sought  in  the  nature  of  man.  After  the  cold 
understanding  had  in  the  eighteenth  century  exercised 
despotic  sway,  starving  the  emotions  and  fettering  the 
phantasy,  these  wronged  sides  of  our  nature  once  more 
claimed  their  rights  and  rebelled  against  the  despotism 
of  the  understanding."  "'A  return  to  nature  and  to 
natural  emotions'  was  now  everywhere  the  watchword, 
and  Rousseau  became  the  prophet  of  the  new  age.  The 
cry  found  its  echo  in  the  *  storm  and  stress'  spirit  of 
belles-lettres :  Herder  and  Goethe  were  its  heralds  in 
Germany,  Wordsworth  and  Shelley  in  English  poetry." 
"  From  the  '  Gospel  of  Nature  '  of  Rousseau  sprang  the 
philosophical  idealism  of  Kant   and  of  Fichte,  and  the 


'On  this  section,  see  Goldwin  Sniitli's  "Oxford,"  p.  39;  Dorner, 
"History  Protestant  Theology,"  Vol.  II.,  pp.  92,  246;  Hagenljach, 
"History  of  the  Church  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  Vol.  I.,  Chap. 
XVIII.;  Lecky,  "England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  Vol.  II., 
Chap.  IX. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  33 

religious  pantheism  of  Herder  and  Novalis."^  But  our 
author  might  have  called  attention  to  the  fact,  which 
would  have  strengthened  his  position,  that  the  intellect- 
ual awakening  in  France,  symbolized  by  such  names  as 
Buffon,  Diderot,  D'Alembert,  Duclos,  Condillac,  Helve- 
tius,  Rynal,  Condorcet,  Mably,  and  Voltaire,  was  decid- 
edly anti-Christian,  acknowledged  no  indebtedness  to 
religion,  and  tended  toward  the  apotheosis  of  nature; 
for  whether  materialistic  or  idealistic,  the  end  apparently 
was  the  same — to  exalt  nature  to  the  supreme  seat  of 
authority  ivitJiiii  man  as  well  as  over  man. 

While  I  have  no  doubt  that  this  awakening  was  in 
the  main  due  to  causes  lying  outside  the  domain  of  or- 
ganized Christianity,  it  is  hardly  fair  to  exclude  alto- 
gether the  revival  spirit  from  its  origins.  An  accom- 
plished writer  in  the  London  ''Spectator,"  July  15, 
1899,  insists  that  : 

Wesley  and  his  co-workers  produced  not  only  a  great  moral, 
but  also  a  great  intellectual  change  in  England.  We  doubt  if 
what  the  Germans  call  the  Weltanschauung  of  a  nation  was  exer 
so  rapidly  transformed  as  was  that  of  England  in  the  last  century. 
Think  of  the  change  from  the  aridity  of  the  deistic  controversy 
and  the  hollow  brilliancy  of  Bolingbroke  and  Chesterfield,  to 
the  green  pastures  and  still  waters  of  the  "  Lyrical  Ballads,"  and 
ask  yourself  what  could  have  wrought  such  a  marvelous  resur- 
rection from  the  dead.  We  cannot,  perhaps,  explain  this,  for  the 
spirit,  in  the  last  analysis,  moveth  where  it  listeth  ;  but  we  do 
see  that  the  new  literature  and  thought  sprang  from  a  new  soil 
watered  by  a  new  faith  which  once  more  saw  the  world  to  be  divine 
and  men  to  be  vitally  related  in  social  bonds  forged  by  God  himself. 

Of  this,  we  have  evidence  in  the  tone  and  quality  of 
what  may  be  termed  distinctively  the  evangelical  litera- 

1  Pfleiderer,  "Development  of  Theology,"  p.  304. 
C 


34         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ture  of  the  period,  such  as  the  graceful  and  tender 
poems  of  Cowper,  the  gloomy  verse  of  Young,  the 
"  Fool  of  Quality  "  of  Henry  Brooke,  and  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Hervey,  Hannah  More,  Newton,  Romaine,  Scott, 
Venn,  not  forgetting  the  hymns  of  the  Wesleys,  of 
Newton,  Beveridge,' Shirley,  Rowland  Hill,  and  Toplady. 
But  beyond  this  circle,  there  appears  a  higher  order  of 
genius  whose  works  witness  to  the  influence  of  the  new 
religious  life  of  the  land,  even  though  they  may  have 
been  in  some  measure  affected  by  foreign  authors. 

Wordsworth  imparted  to  religion  as  well  as  to  nature 
a  deeper  significance.  The  '*  Solitary  among  the  Moun- 
tains "  is  as  much  of  a  prophet-teacher  as  a  minstrel  ; 
and  in  his  verse  he  reveals  the  hold  that  faith  has  on 
humanity  when  uncontaminated  by  conceit  and  arti- 
ficiality. It  is  true  that  Thomas  Carlyle  gives  a  dis- 
couraging account  of  things  in  Scotland,  telling  us  how 
little  spiritual  food  could  be  found  in  the  university. 
"  There  was  much  talk  about  progress  of  the  species, 
dark  ages,  and  the  like,  but  the  hungry  young  looked  up 
to  their  spiritual  nurses,  and  for  food  were  bidden  to 
eat  the  east  wind."  *'  Dr.  Thomas  Brown,  eloquent  and 
full  of  enthusiasm  about  simple  suggestion,  relative,  etc., 
was  found  utterly  unprofitable."  And  yet  at  this  time 
Coleridge  was  reviving  the  Alexandrian  school  of  philos- 
ophy, and  was  setting  forth  revolutionary  theological 
opinions  in  the  church,  whose  influence  would  be  felt 
in  biblical  criticism  and  biblical  interpretation  for  many 
years  after.  And  even  then  Burns  had  sung  his  songs 
of  love  and  nature,  through  which,  ever  and  anon,  the 
old  Scotch  notes  of  piety  resound,  and  had  announced 
in  almost  martial  strains  man's  true  dignity  to  be  in 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  35 

himself  and  not  in  his  tinsel  ornaments.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  had  also  appeared,  beginning  his  poetical  career 
in  1805,  and  speedily  electrifying  society  by  the  phe- 
nomenal brilliancy  of  his  genius  for  romance.  Nor 
should  we  forget  that  the  first  number  of  the  *'  Edin- 
burgh Review  "  was  published  in  1802,  and  that  within 
a  few  years  George  Combe,  with  his  new  philosophy 
of  life,  and  Thomas  Erskine,  Macleod  Campbell,  and 
Edward  Irving  were  startling  their  contemporaries  and 
were  sowing  seeds  of  thought  whose  fruit  was  destined 
to  be  transformed  into  new  opinions,  but  not  entirely  to 
perish. 

Now,  admitting  the  manifest  revolt  in  some  of  these 
great  teachers  from  dominant  orthodoxy,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  they  seem  to  be  seeking  truth  in  such  a  way 
as  must  always  suggest  their  indebtedness  to  the  re- 
ligious spirit.  Consequently,  without  claiming  every- 
thing: for  the  evano^elical  revival,  we  believe  we  are  war- 
ranted  in  affirming  that  the  quickened  soul  of  the  world 
was  a  most  potent  force  in  arousing  its  slumbering  in- 
tellect. 

And  certainly,  in  America  we  had  no  native  literature 
worth  the  name  until  after  the  Revolutionary  War  and 
the  gracious  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit  which 
crowned  it  with  blessing  and  glory.  ''  Our  intellectual 
patriarchs  "  belong,  without  exception,  to  the  genera- 
tion which  followed  the  Revolution.  "  Irving  was  not 
a  year  old  when  peace  was  declared.  Cooper  was  born 
in  the  same  year  that  Washington  went  into  office ; 
Halleck,  one  year  later  ;  Prescott,  in  the  year  Washing- 
ton came  out  of  office.  The  Constitution  was  five 
years  old  when  Bryant  was  born.     The  first  year  of  the 


36         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

present  century  witnessed  the  birth  of  Bancroft,  and, 
before  another  decade  has  gone,  Emerson  was  born,  and 
WilHs,  and  Longfellow,  and  Whittier,  and  Holmes,  and 
Hawthorne,  and  Poe."  ^  But  MacMaster,  in  his  explana- 
tion of  this  extraordinary  birth  of  genius,  is  likewise 
inclined  to  be  partial  and  exclusive.  He  likens  it  to 
the  literary  eras  of  **  the  age  of  Pericles,  of  Augustus, 
of  Leo,  of  Elizabeth,  and  of  Louis  Ouatorze,"  and  con- 
tends that  the  brilliancy  of  these  periods  followed  seasons 
of  national  commotion,  disorder,  and  contention.  And 
his  elucidation  of  the  phenomenon  is  contained  in  a 
single  sentence  :  ''Whatever  can  turn  the  minds  of  men 
from  the  channels  in  which  they  have  long  been  running, 
and  stir  them  to  their  inmost  depths,  has  never  yet 
failed  to  produce  most  salutary  and  lasting  results."^ 
This  may  be  admitted  without  controversy.  But  what 
so  rouses  man,  thrills  him,  startles  and  agitates  and 
stimulates  his  every  faculty,  as  the  power  of  religion  ? 
Goethe  regards  the  ages  of  faith  as  the  ages  of  the 
greatest  intellectual  activity.  And  we  are,  therefore, 
obliged  to  conclude  that  while  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment had  much  to  do  with  the  quickening  of  national 
thought  and  with  the  production  of  our  early  literature, 
the  revival  of  religion  was  also  a  potent  agent,  stirring 
the  soul  to  its  deepest  depths.  If  the  one  was  the  father, 
the  other  was  the  mother,  and  without  the  union  of 
both,  there  would  have  been  no  birth  of  resplendent 
literary  genius. 

There  is  another  characteristic  feature  of  the  two 
twilights  that  remains  to  be  considered — the  political. 
The  convulsions   and   upheavals   in   civil   governments 

>  MacMaster,  "  Hist.  People  of  U.  S.,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  77.        ^  /^/^/^  p    y^^ 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  37 

were  as  remarkable  in  their  way  as  were  those  which 
brought  to  an  end  the  lethargy  of  the  mind  and  the 
apathy  of  the  heart,  and  gave  to  the  world  a  new  era 
in  letters  and  faith.  The  War  of  Independence  had 
wrought  momentous  changes,  not  only  to  the  colonists, 
but  to  Englishmen  everywhere.  It  had  compelled  a 
recognition  of  the  rights  of  British  subjects  under  Magna 
Charta  and  the  Constitution,  and  it  had  effected  per- 
manently a  restriction  of  the  royal  prerogative  in  the 
affairs  of  the  people.  But  in  addition  to  this,  it  had 
aroused  everywhere  a  longing  for  freedom,  a  longing 
that  found  its  earliest  expression  in  France,  and  which 
was  destined  to  continue  its  agitations  throughout  the 
century,  notably  in  1838,  in  1848,  in  i860,  in  1870,  and 
which  would  have  kindled  its  fires  more  promptly  all 
over  Europe  but  for  the  excesses  of  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
The  entire  continent  needed  the  revolutionary  cataclysm 
almost  as  fully  as  France  ;  but  certain  causes  precipitated 
it  there  and  hindered  it  elsewhere.  France  then  became 
the  storm-center  of  liberty  ;  and  terrible  and  destructive 
though  the  tempest  was,  it  was  indispensable  to  the 
progress  of  humanity  and  the  rise  of  the  new  civiliza- 
tion. The  rotten  and  rotting  forests  had  to  be  cleared 
away,  the  poison  growth  of  gleaming  flowers  had  to  be 
rooted  up,  the  malaria  of  social  swamps  had  to  be  dis- 
persed, and  the  treacherous  vipers  and  gnawing  vermin 
that  rendered  unhabitable  the  social  State  had  to  be  ex- 
terminated before  there  could  be  any  garden  of  the  Lord, 
and  before  the  people  could  rear  the  sanctuary  dedicated 
to  universal  freedom  and  happiness.  The  French  Revo- 
lution was  an  object-lesson.  It  warned  rulers  not  to 
go  too  far  ;  it  demonstrated  that  there  will  always  be 


38         CIIRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

violent  reaction  against  persistent  injustice;  and  it  re- 
vealed to  the  people  the  danger  to  which  they  were 
exposed  by  the  intensity  of  their  indignation,  and  ad- 
monished them  not  to  substitute  v/ild  fury  for  justice, 
lest,  like  Samson,  they  pull  down  the  house  about  them, 
and  retard  the  final  victory  of  the  cause  they  have  at 
heart  as  did  the  terrorists  in  1793. 

The  French  Revolution  was  likewise  the  termination 
of  an  epoch.  It  was  a  day  of  doom,  a  time  of  judgment. 
In  its  turn  it  anathematized  a  church  that  had  long 
cursed  the  nation,  that  had  corrupted  conscience,  pol- 
luted purity  and  enslaved  thought ;  it  suppressed  a 
throne  that  had  oppressed  those  whom  it  should  have 
protected,  that  had  existed  for  its  own  splendor  and  not 
for  its  own  honor,  and  that  had  increased  its  luxury  at 
the  expense  of  the  impoverished  ;  and  it  repudiated  and 
guillotined  the  upper  classes,  who  by  their  laxity,  their 
immoralities,  their  cruelties,  and  their  glittering  and 
sickening  depravities,  had  sunk  themselves  lower  than 
the  lowest  ;  for  none  are  so  fallen  as  the  angels,  crea- 
tures of  most  exalted  privilege,  who  kept  not  their  first 
estate.  What  Camille  Desmoulins  in  his  wild  exultation, 
wrote  immediately  on  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  may  be 
taken  as  fairly  indicative  of  the  kind  of  world  the  con- 
vulsive throes  of  this  political  earthquake  precipitated 
into  the  bottomless  abyss. 

"  Hccc  nox  est,'"  he  triumphantly  exclaims.  "This  night  we 
have  escaped  from  our  miserable  Egyptian  bondage.  This  night 
has  exterminated  the  wild  boars,  the  rabbits,  and  all  the  vermin 
which  devour  our  crops.  This  night  has  abolished  the  tithes  and 
perquisites  of  the  clergy.  This  night  has  abolished  the  annates 
and  dispensations  ;    has  taken  the  keys  of  heaven  from  an  Alex- 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN 


39 


ander  VI.  and  given  them  to  a  good  conscience.  O  night,  dis- 
astrous to  the  great  chamber,  the  registrars,  the  bailiffs,  the  attor- 
neys, the  secretaries,  the  solicitous  beauties,  porters,  valets,  advo- 
cates, people  of  the  royal  household,  all  the  tribes  of  rapine  ! 
Night,  disastrous  to  all  the  bloodsuckers  of  the  State,  the  finan- 
ciers, the  courtiers,  the  cardinals,  archbishops,  abbes,  canonesses, 
abbesses,  priors,  and  subpriors  ! ' ' 

Yes,  night  indeed,  black  and  profound,  swallowing  up 
the  enormities,  atrocities,  infamies,  as  well  as  the  puer- 
ilities and  artificialities  of  a  day  which,  measured  by  the 
tears  of  the  innocent  and  the  sufferings  of  the  just,  had 
already  reached  the  duration  of  an  eternity. 

The  Revolution,  in  one  sense,  had  its  rise  in  the 
degradation  and  unmatched  wretchedness  of  the  masses. 
These  are  graphically  portrayed  by  Carlyle  : 

They — the  peasant  class  and  lowly — are  sent  to  do  statute 
labour,  to  pay  statute  taxes,  to  fatten  battlefields — named  "beds 
of  honor  " — with  their  bodies,  in  quarrels  which  are  not  theirs  ;  their 
hand  and  toil  is  in  every  possession  of  man,  but  for  themselves 
they  have  little  or  no  possession  ;  untaught,  uncomforted,  unfed, 
to  pine  stagnant  in  thick  obscuration,  in  squalid  destitution,  and 
obstruction,  this  is  the  lot  of  the  millions,  pcuplc  taillable  ct 
corv cable  a  mcrci  et  miscricordcy^ 

And  when  this  heap  of  seething  wretchedness  was 
becoming  vocal,  and  with  strident  cries  was  clamoring 
for  bread,  and  the  thunders  of  contending  factions  ech- 
oed over  Europe,  Schleiermacher,  discerning  the  true 
significance  of  the  hour,  wrote  his  famous  discourses  on 
''Religion,"  in  which  he  taught  that  Christianity  was 
essentially  social  and  the  church  the  brotherhood  of  man- 
kind.     Unquestionably,  stripped  of  its  religious  nomen- 

^  "French  Revolution,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  2. 


40         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

clature,  this  is  the  message  of  the  Revolution  to  the 
world.  It  was  written  clearly  in  the  idyllic  dreams  of 
Rousseau,  it  was  revealed  in  Condorcet's  **  Progress  of 
the  Spirit  of  Man,"  it  was  involved  in  the  political 
schemes  of  the  Rolands,  and  found,  at  last,  the  fullest 
expression  in  the  system  of  Comte,  where  the  individual 
is  lost  in  the  species  and  each  man  is  merely  a  part  of 
the  collective  Great  Being  existing  solely  for  that  Great 
]3eing,  by  the  philosopher  identified  with  the  totality  of 
humanity.     Yes,  the  hope  of  a  new  order  of  society — 

In  which  hberty,  equahty,  and  fraternity  should  reign  ;  in  which 
tyrants  should  no  more  oppress  and  judges  no  more  frown  down 
the  poor  ;  in  which  hungry  eyes  and  gaunt  faces  would  no  longer 
appeal  to  heaven  in  vain  for  bread  ;  in  which  jealousy,  suspi- 
cion, and  rivalry  would  be  banished  by  the  sentiment  of  brother- 
hood ;  in  which  war  should  be  impossible  and  crime  unknown  ;  in 
which  the  good  and  beautiful  gifts  of  God  should  be  every  man' s 
possession  by  birthright  and  life  should  become  gay  and  glad  again, 
crowned  with  plenty  and  bright  with  song — these  were  the  dreams 
with  which  men  in  the  early  days  of  the  Revolution,  before  the 
tiger  had  tasted  blood,  kept  their  feasts  of  fraternity,  clasping  each 
others'  necks  in  the  streets  of  Paris  and  proclaiming  a  millennium 


These  visions  were  born,  not  of  hell,  but  of  heaven  ;  they 
were  part  of  the  neglected  teachings  of  the  Chiistian 
faith,  and  destined  to  exert  an  immediate  and  future 
influence  on  Christian  history  and  development. 

Such,  then,  was  the  twilight  of  the  two  centuries,  and 
under  its  leaden  and  storm-streaked  sky,  but  breathing 
the  exhilarating  atmosphere  of  a  new  age,  Christianity 
gave  signs  of  aggressive  action.  She  began  to  reor- 
ganize herself.      She  commenced  to  learn  how  little   in 

^Baldwin  Brown,  "First  Principles,"  p.  261. 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN 


41 


reality  she  was  dependent  on  earthly  governments  for 
her  support  and  dignity.  Clearer  conceptions  of  her 
divine  character  and  mission  began  to  prevail.  She  be- 
came conscious  of  a  fullness  of  life  she  had  not  realized 
before  for  many  decades,  and,  sharing  in  the  unrest,  the 
agitation,  the  very  uncertainty,  and  yet  the  expectancy 
of  the  times,  she  addressed  herself  to  the  problems  of 
the  future — problems  that  involved  her  own  welfare  as 
well  as  the  destiny  of  mankind.  Missions  of  various 
kinds,  Bible  societies,  and  evangelizing  agencies  were 
called  in  swift  succession  into  existence,  and  it  soon 
became  apparent  that  Christianity  was  mobilizing  her 
forces  and  that  she  was  about  to  take  the  field  as  never 
in  the  past,  not  even  in  the  apostolic  age. 

While  as  early  as  1698  The  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge  was  formed  in  England,  and  a  few 
other  enterprises  of  a  kindred  spirit,  it  was  not  until  the 
close  of  the  last  century  that  these  movements  multi- 
plied in  a  remarkable  degree.  King  William  III.  was 
<' graciously  pleased"  June  i6th,  1701,  to  erect  and 
settle  a  corporation  with  the  name,  The  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts  ;  and  Fred- 
erick IV.,  of  Denmark,  1705,  sanctioned  a  similar  scheme 
among  his  subjects;  and  in  1732  the  Moravian  Mis- 
sions commenced.  But  these  admirable  combinations 
were  only  the  advance  guard  of  what  was  to  follow. 
A  Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society  was  founded  in  1 780 ; 
the  Methodist  missions  were  begun  in  1784;  the  Sun- 
day School  Society,  in  1785  ;  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,  in  1792;  the  London  Missionary  Society,  in 
1795  ;  and  then,  before  the  century  closed,  the  Scottish 
Missionary  Society,  and  associations  for  the  evangeliza- 


42         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tion  of  luigland  (1796),  for  Baptist  Home  work  (1797), 
and  the  Religious  Tract  Society  (1799). 

Still  greater  activity  distinguished  the  dawning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  In  1800  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  was  formed  ;  in  1803  the  Sunday  School  Union  ; 
in  1804  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society;  in  1805 
the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society ;  and  these  were 
rapidly  followed  by  societies  for  evangelizing  Ireland 
(1806),  for  converting  the  Jews  (1808),  for  distributing 
prayer-books  (18 12),  for  the  triumph  of  Protestantism 
on  the  continent  (18 18),  for  the  promotion  of  the  relig- 
ious principles  of  the  Reformation  (1828),  and  others 
for  the  advancement  along  particular  lines  of  the  holy 
gospel  in  faith  and  practice  throughout  the  globe.  The 
same  tendency  was  manifest  in  America  apparently  as 
the  result  of  the  religious  quickening  and  the  political 
upheaval.  Under  the  haystacks  on  the  borders  of  the 
Hoosac,  some  students  of  Williams  College,  Wills,  Hall, 
and  Richards,  converted  in  the  revivals  of  1800,  ''prayed 
into  existence  the  embryo  of  foreign  missions."  In 
February,  181 2,  the  first  American  missionaries  to 
heathen  lands.  Rice,  Judson,  Newell,  Nott,  and  Hall, 
with  their  wives,  set  out  for  Calcutta.  This  year  wit- 
nessed the  organization  of  the  American  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions,  and  in  18 14  the  General  Missionary  Con- 
vention of  the  Baptists  came  into  operation.  The  Bap- 
tist Home  Mission  Society  hardly  belongs  to  this  period, 
as  it  was  not  founded  until  1832  ;  but  in  18 19  the  Epis- 
copalians of  this  country  sent  forces  to  help  on  the  good 
work  in  foreign  lands;  and  in  1826  the  American  Home 
Missionary  Society  was  formed  ;  in  1825  the  Tract  So- 
ciety; in  181 5  the  American  Education  Society;  in  1824 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  43 

the  American  Baptist  Publication  Society  and  the  Sun- 
day School  Union;  in  1826  the  American  Seaman's 
Friend  Society;  in  1817  the  Colonization  Society,  con- 
templating the  settlement  of  Liberia;  and  in  1826  the 
Temperance  Society.  These,  numerous  though  they 
are,  do  not  exhaust  the  list  of  corporate  bodies  sum- 
moned into  being  by  the  spirit  of  the  age  to  promote 
the  eternal  principles  of  Christ's  kingdom. 

Nor  should  we  overlook  the  fact  that  among  them 
appeared  one  of  the  greatest  significance  in  American 
history — the  first  society  for  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
formed  among  the  Friends  in  Pennsylvania  in  1774. 
But  while  to  them  pertains  the  honor  of  priority,  to  the 
Methodists  belongs  the  distinction  of  having  organized 
the  strongest  and  greatest  of  such  societies  ;  and  in  their 
Conference,  this  denomination,  in  1780,  publicly  de- 
clared that  *'  slavery  is  contrary  to  the  laws  of  God  and 
man  and  nature,  and  hurtful  to  society;  contrary  to  the 
dictates  of  conscience  and  pure  religion,  and  doing  that 
which  we  would  not  that  others  should  do  to  us  and 
ours."  A  noble  protest,  this,  and  one  in  which  they 
were  joined  by  the  Baptists  of  Virginia,  who,  in  1789, 
''  Resolved,  That  slavery  is  a  violent  deprivation  of  the 
rights  of  nature  and  inconsistent  with  a  republican  gov- 
ernment, and  we  therefore  recommend  it  to  our  breth- 
ren to  make  use  of  every  legal  means  to  extirpate  this 
horrid  evil  from  the  land." 

Now,  taking  all  these  enterprises  together,  these  new 
orders  and  institutions,  does  it  not  seem  as  though 
Christianity,  with  the  fading  of  the  old  century  and  the 
beginning  of  the  new,  was  preparing  herself  for  an  on- 
ward  movement ;    was   anticipating,  as   with   prophetic 


44         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

foresight,  the  needs  and  developments  of  the  coming 
hundred  years ;  and  was  proclaiming  a  revolutionary 
programme  of  her  own,  instinct  with  the  hope  of  brother- 
hood and  the  victory  of  faith  ?  This  is  the  impression 
her  extraordinary  activity  is  calculated  to  make,  and  as 
we  proceed  we  shall  meet  with  abundant  evidence  that 
it  has  been  justified  by  the  facts  of  history. 

But,  more  than  this,  it  would  seem  that,  when  the 
two  twilights  were  blending,  there  were  not  lacking 
signs  that  Christianity,  in  the  future,  would  have  to 
depend  on  her  own  resources  for  the  success  of  her 
projected  undertakings  and  come  to  rely  less  and  less 
on  the  support  of  the  State  and  the  official  patronage 
of  princes.  In  the  United  States,  the  old-time  partner- 
ship, such  as  it  was,  between  the  civil  government  and 
the  church,  practically  came  to  an  end  with  the  Revolu- 
tion. While  in  certain  commonwealths,  like  Massa- 
chusetts, there  were  many  conservatives  who  were  re- 
luctant to  abandon  the  union  of  the  secular  and  spiritual, 
they  were  unable  to  resist  the  more  general  and  persist- 
ent demand  for  its  abrogation.  Let  it,  however,  be 
understood  that  these  demands  did  not  proceed  primarily 
and  necessarily  from  those  who  were  disaffected  toward 
religion,  but  principally  from  Christians  themselves, 
particularly  from  Quakers  and  Baptists,  who  had  always 
taught  that  the  religion  of  Christ  ought  to  maintain 
itself  and  pursue  its  work  without  entering  into  en- 
tangling alliances  with  the  sovereignties  of  this  world. 

In  France,  the  same,  or,  more  accurately  speaking,  a 
similar  disruption  occurred  during  the  throes  and  agonies 
of  the  revolutionary  period.  The  Convention  abolished 
tithes,  acting  on  a  vague  impression  that  religion  should 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  45 

be  supported  in  some  other  way.  Then  the  landed 
estates  of  the  church  were  confiscated  to  reUeve  the 
financial  distress  of  the  nation.  But  the  climax  was 
reached  when  the  Bishop  of  Paris  publicly  renounced 
Christianity  in  the  Convention,  November,  1793.  Chau- 
mette,  so  strangely  extolled  by  Michelet,  the  product  of 
•'the  holy  mud  of  Paris,"  illustrates  the  significance  of 
this  crisis  in  his  speech  wherein  he  declared  that  the 
priests  were  capable  of  all  crimes,  and  that  Paris  had 
decided  to  acknowledge  no  other  worship  than  that  of 
reason.  This  declamation  led  to  a  series  of  resolutions, 
the  first  of  which  is  sufficient  to  tell  the  whole  story : 
''  All  the  churches  or  temples  of  all  religions  and  wor- 
ships which  have  existed  in  Paris  shall  be  immediately 
closed."  Excesses  of  various  kinds  ensued.  Churches 
were  desecrated  and  plundered  ;  the  Goddess  of  Reason 
was  installed  at  Notre  Dame,  and  the  tenth  day  of  rest 
was  substituted  for  the  seventh ;  while  it  was  being 
openly  asserted  that  the  Parisians  were  without  faith 
and  had  exalted  Marat  to  the  throne  of  Jesus.  Danton 
perceived  that  these  scenes  of  abjuration  were  ominous, 
and  pronounced  this  remarkable  sentence  :  "  If  we  have 
not  honored  the  priest  of  error  and  fanaticism,  neither 
will  we  honor  the  priest  of  infidelity."  Even  Robes- 
pierre, in  his  manifesto  to  Europe,  seeks  to  abate  the 
odium  which  had  attached  to  the  authorities  for  their 
atheistic  decrees,  by  declaring  that,  "  The  P'rench  people 
and  its  representatives  respect  the  liberty  of  all  wor- 
ships, and  proscribe  none  of  them."  To  some  such 
solution  of  the  problem,  the  Convention  laboriously 
struggled,  as  is  shown  by  the  singularly  pitiable  decree  : 
''  The  Convention  invites  all  <rood  citizens,  in  the  name 


46         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

of  the  police,  to  abstain  from  all  disputes  on  theology, 
or  such  as  are  foreign  to  the  great  interests  of  the 
French  people."  But,  conceding  that  the  debates  had 
gradually  drifted  toward  a  recognition  of  every  man's 
right  to  worship  God,  unhampered  by  the  State,  it  is 
none  the  less  clear  that  the  State  had  repudiated 
ofificial  connection  with  the  Catholic  Church.  Thus, 
for  a  little  while,  the  same  result  was  reached  which 
had  been  reached  in  America,  although  the  means  em- 
ployed, the  reasons  alleged,  and  the  spirit  manifested, 
were  very  different. 

The  French  were  not  in  a  condition  to  give  this  ex- 
periment a  fair  trial.  They  had  for  centuries  identified 
religion  with  ecclesiasticism,  and  they  missed  its  out- 
ward signs  and  public  ministrations.  Therefore,  in  1797, 
steps  were  taken  to  restore  Catholic  worship  ;  but  as  all 
the  measures  proposed  were  not  acceptable  to  Pius  VI., 
a  conflict  ensued  which  threatened  disastrous  conse- 
quences. The  Directory  imprisoned  the  pope  and  en- 
dorsed Napoleon's  proposal  that  no  other  pope  should 
be  chosen.  By  and  by,  however,  the  emperor  took  a 
different  view  of  the  matter,  and  a  concordat  was  entered 
into  between  France  and  Rome  ;  but  by  this  concordat 
the  church  was  not  by  any  means  restored  to  her  for- 
mer position,  nor  was  it  until  the  negotiations  between 
Pius  VII.  and  Louis  XVIII.  that  his  holiness  was  in- 
vested with  the  same  exalted  privileges  which  his  pre- 
decessor had  enjoyed  in  the  reign  of  P^rancis  I.  ;  and 
even  then  the  church  was  not  reinstated  in  all  the  fear- 
ful absolutism  which  had  excited  the  abhorrence  of  en- 
lightened minds  before  the  revolutionary  struggle.  The 
Reformed  Church  was  also  taken  under  the  protection 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  47 

of  the  State  ;  but  though  the  experiment  in  freedom 
was  too  hastily  abandoned,  it  had  produced  a  party  in 
France — a  party,  intelligent  and  influential,  which  has 
kept  a  watchful  eye  on  the  actions  of  the  church,  and 
which  has  more  than  once  manifested  a  determination 
to  bring  about  a  final  separation  between  her  and  the 
nation.  Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that,  as  though  de- 
signed to  consummate  this  separation  everywhere  in  the 
fullness  of  time,  attacks  were  made  on  medieval  popery 
by  various  European  governments. 

In  Tuscany,  Leopold  instigated  a  reformation  in  imita- 
tion of  Henry  VIII.,  bringing  spiritual  courts  under 
control  of  the  government  and  suppressing  the  Inqui- 
sition. The  Austrian  Emperor,  Joseph  II.,  laid  restric- 
tions on  Roman  bulls,  abolished  mendicant  monks,  con- 
fiscated monasteries  for  colleges  and  barracks,  ordered 
the  vernacular  to  be  used  for  all  services  except  the 
mass,  and  accorded  toleration  to  Protestants  and  Greeks. 
Spain  also  displayed  unexpected  energy  in  the  same  di- 
rection. She  condemned  the  Inquisition  and  moderated 
a  number  of  abuses.  And  Venice  herself  entered  into 
the  conflict  and  became  a  very  center  of  revolt  against 
antiquated  ecclesiastical  assumptions  and  tyrannies. 

This  daring  uprising  of  the  secular,  this  presumptu- 
ous interference  with  the  long-established  prerogatives 
of  the  sacred  orders,  was  destined  to  produce  a  spirit  of 
resistance  and  of  indignation  in  the  church — a  spirit 
which  should  reveal  itself  later  on  in  Oxford  movements 
and  in  other  movements,  chafing  under  the  yoke  of 
privy  councils  or  of  Italian  cabinets,  and  claiming  for 
Christianity  a  sovereignty  above  that  of  earthly  thrones 
and    governments ;    all    of    which,   as    the    philosophic 


48         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

student  must  realize,  has  made,  on  the  side  of  Chris- 
tianity, for  the  final  triumph  of  disestablishment,  she 
bemg  compelled,  by  the  encroachments  of  her  former 
allies,  to  demand  release  from  what  is  coming  to  be  an 
intolerable  humiliation.  This  consummation,  the  origins 
of  which  date  back  to  the  twilight  of  two  centuries,  is 
inevitable  and  will  reach  its  final  stage  through  the 
action  of  religious  leaders  and  their  followers.^ 

In  the  meanwhile,  as  Christianity  realized  that  her 
support  from  the  revenues  of  States  would  probably  be 
more  or  less  precarious,  and  in  some  instances  would 
cease  entirely,  she  began,  with  the  dawning  of  the 
present  century,  to  develop  and  rely  on  her  own  re- 
sources. While  in  the  past  she  had  been  sustained  by 
some  form  of  national  tithing  and  had  been  enriched  by 
the  votive  offerings  of  princes  and  princely  merchants, 
and  by  the  prices  she  had  charged  for  the  performance 
of  various  sacred  offices,  she  commenced  to  appeal  to 
her  own  constituency,  poor  as  well  as  affluent,  for  volun- 
tary offerings.  In  America,  the  great  Protestant  bodies 
had  to  provide  means  for  the  building  of  churches, 
schools,  and  other  benefactions,  as  well  as  to  defray 
current  expenses  of  worship  ;  and  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  these  institutions  have  been  established,  with 
only  a  few  exceptions,  within  the  last  hundred  years, 
the  amount  of  money  freely  contributed  is  more  than 
encouraging,  and  is  indicative  of  what  can  be  achieved 
in  the  future.  The  Catholics,  also,  in  the  United  States, 
have  fairly  rivaled  if  they  have  not  excelled  the  Protes- 

^  Carnot,  "  Mhnoires  sur  Carnot,''  Vol.  II.  ;  Michelet,  "  History  of  the 
Revolution,"  Vol.  VII.  ;  De  Pressense,  "The  Church  and  the  French 
Revolution." 


THE    DUSK    AND    DAWN  49 

tants  in  their  lavish  expenditures  and  in  the  numbers  of 
all  classes  who  have  gladly  shared  in  furnishing  the 
necessary  supplies.  In  Great  Britain,  the  Nonconform- 
ists, by  their  generous  gifts,  challenge  the  world's 
admiration,  and  even  on  the  continent,  there  has  been 
for  some  time  more  dependence  placed  on  the  voluntary 
offerings  of  the  faithful  than  formerly.  If  it  shall  be 
said  that,  in  the  earlier  ages,  the  religion  of  the  people 
cost  the  people  as  much  as  now,  we  may  be  allowed,  in 
reply,  to  answer  that  then  money  was,  as  a  rule,  paid  as 
a  tax,  and  was  generally  regarded  as  an  exacting  im- 
position from  which  there  was  no  relief. 

But  the  movement  I  am  describing  refers  to  the  de- 
velopment of  genuine  benevolence,  to  the  growth  of  a 
liberal  spirit  that  gives  to  the  support  of  Christianity 
and  does  not  pay  for  its  ministrations.  There  is  con- 
siderable difference  between  these  methods  of  raising 
money.  While  they  may  furnish  equal  totals,  the  latter 
exalts  and  blesses  the  donor.  The  voluntary  system 
cultivates  the  spirit  of  benevolence,  and  adds  the  con- 
sciousness to  every  contributor,  however  lowly,  that  he 
has  as  real  a  part  to  play  in  the  advancement  of  Chris- 
tianity as  the  highest  and  noblest  in  the  land.  With 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  work  of 
cultivating  the  generosity  of  the  churches  and  of  per- 
fecting systems  of  sacred  finance  was  a  necessity.  It 
could  not  be  avoided.  Therefore  in  contemplating 
Christianity,  as  the  old  century  was  retreating  before 
the  new,  we  must  think  of  her,  not  only  as  feeling 
deeply  the  power  of  a  new  life  and  as  planning  for  an 
onward  movement,  but  as  realizing  in  some  degree  her 
independence  and  the  obligation  resting  on  her  to  draw 


50         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

from  her  own  membership  the  money  necessary  for  the 
successful  prosecution  of  her  designs. 

Such,  then,  was  her  condition  when  the  century  was 
young.  Whether  she  has  fulfilled  the  promise  of  the 
dawning,  and  whether  she  has  interpreted  her  age 
aright  and  has  met  its  reasonable  demands,  are  ques- 
tions we  must  for  the  present  leave  unanswered.  But 
no  one  can  surely  doubt  the  magnificence  of  the  oppor- 
tunity that  opened  before  her  with  the  beginning  of  the 
last  hundred  years,  nor  underestimate  the  difificulties  of 
the  varied  and  gigantic  task  to  which  she  was  then 
called.  How  she  has  wrought,  what  she  has  sacrificed, 
and  what  she  has  achieved,  make  up  a  story  of  tran- 
scendent interest,  and  one  more  romantic  than  any 
dreamed  of  by  the  fertile  imagination  of  a  Victor  Hugo 
or  an  Alexander  Dumas.  The  wonder  of  it  and  the 
glory  of  it  should  inspire  us  with  fervent  admiration  of 
the  epoch  which  has  rendered  it  possible,  and  should 
fill  us  with  something  of  the  holy  spirit  of  gratitude,  of 
devotion,  of  enthusiasm,  and  of  earnest  inquiry  which 
prepares  for  nobler  deeds  in  coming  years,  and  which 
has  found  no  more  eloquent  expression,  and  possibly 
never  can,  than  in  the  words  of  Archbishop  Ireland  : 

I  love  my  age.  I  love  its  aspiration  and  its  resolves.  I  revel 
in  its  feats  of  valor,  its  industries,  and  its  discoveries.  I  thank  it 
for  its  many  benefactions  to  my  fellow-men,  to  the  people  rather 
than  the  princes  and  rulers.  I  seek  no  backward  voyage  across 
the  sea  of  time.  I  will  ever  press  forward.  I  believe  that  God 
intends  the  present  to  be  better  than  the  past,  and  the  future  to 
be  better.  We  should  live  in  our  age,  know  it,  be  in  touch  with 
it.  Our  work  is  in  the  present  and  not  in  the  past.  It  will  not  do 
to  understand  the  thirteenth  better  than  the  nineteenth  century.^ 

^  Sermon  before  the  Baltimore  Council. 


II 

THE  DIVINE  AND  HUMAN 


Through  the  harsh  noises  of  our  day, 
A  low,  sweet  prelude  finds  its  way  ; 
Through  clouds  of  doubt,  and  creeds  of  fear, 
A  light  is  breaking,  calm  and  clear. 

That  song  of  Love,  now  low  and  far. 
Ere  long  shall  swell  from  star  to  star  ! 
That  light,  the  breaking  day,  which  tips 
The  golden-spired  Apocalypse  ! 

—  Whittier. 


II 


THE  HUMAN  ELEMENT  IN  THE  PROGRESS  OF  A  DIVINE 
RELIGION 

With  Schelling,  religion  is  pre-eminently  intuition ; 
with  Jacobi,  it  is  faith  ;  with  Hegel,  it  is  thought ;  with 
Schleiermacher,  it  is  dependence ;  with  Herbert  Spencer, 
it  is  wonder ;  with  Kant,  it  is  duty  ;  and,  older  than  they 
all,  with  Lactantius,  it  is  ''the  link  which  unites  man 
with  God."  Dr.  Martineau  understands  by  religion, 
"  belief  in  an  Ever-living  God,  that  is,  of  a  Divine  Will 
ruling  the  universe,  and  holding  moral  relations  with 
mankind."  Principal  Fairbairn  says  that  ''it  is  but  the 
symbol  of  the  kindred  natures  and  correlated  energies 
of  God  and  man  "  ;  or,  in  other  terms  :  "Religion  may 
be  described  as  man's  consciousness  of  supernatural  re- 
lations, or  his  belief  in  the  reciprocal  activities  of  his 
own  spirit  and  the  Divine."  And  Dr.  W.  N.  Clarke, 
in  harmony  with  this  definition,  writes  :  "  Religion  is  the 
life  of  man  in  his  superhuman  relations  ;  that  is,  in  his 
relation  to  the  Power  that  produced  him,  the  Authority 
that  is  over  him,  and  the  Unseen  Being  with  whom  he  is 
capable  of  comaiunion." 

In  these  representations,  it  is  not  for  a  second  con- 
ceded, with  the  Latin  poet,  that  "fear  genders  the 
gods  "  ;  neither  is  the  singular  misconception  of  Brune- 
tiere  and  of  Bossuet  for  a  moment  tolerated,  that  relig- 
ion in  its  highest  form  is  a  perfect  system  and  model  of 
government.     We  are  all  more  or  less  familiar  with  the 

53 


54         CHRISTIANITY    IX    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

efforts  that  have  been  made  to  identify  it  with  phantasy 
and  superstition,  or  with  outward  order  and  discipline, 
or,  at  most,  with  certain  definite  and  stereotyped  creeds. 
Not  infrequently  has  it  been  said  that  the  priest  in- 
vented religion,  though,  as  Sabatier  naively  puts  it,  no 
one  deigns  to  inform  us  who  invented  the  priest ;  and, 
as  frequently,  it  has  been  narrowed  and  restricted  by 
the  limitations  of  verbal  forms  or  of  ecclesiastical  sys- 
tems. 

But  the  more  the  subject  is  studied  dispassionately 
and  candidly,  the  clearer  it  is  seen  that  all  such  meagre 
conceptions  must  be  abandoned  as  untenable,  and  that, 
in  the  last  analysis,  religion  must  be  taken  as  the  science 
of  man's  higher  and  most  enduring  relationships.  And 
the  genius  of  Christianity  is  in  perfect  accord  with  this 
philosophical  deduction.  We  are  warranted  in  assum- 
ing that,  if  Christianity  is  the  supreme  religion  of  the 
world,  it  will  and  must  embody  in  itself  the  essential 
nature  of  religion  itself  ;  for  it  to  do  otherwise  would  be 
for  it  to  present  a  contradiction  and  to  render  its  own 
claims  incredible  and  self-destructive. 

Auguste  Sabatier,  dealing  with  the  question  why  the 
followers  of  Jesus  regard  their  faith  as  ideal  and  perfect, 
answers  in  the    following  language  : 

They  affirm  that,  religion  not  being  an  idea  but  a  relation  to 
God,  the  perfect  religion  is  the  perfect  realization  of  their  relation 
to  God  and  of  God's  relation  to  them.  And  this  is  not  on  their 
part  a  theoretical  speculation  ;  it  is  the  immediate  and  practical 
result  of  their  inward  experience.  They  feel  that  their  religious 
need  is  satisfied,  that  God  has  entered  with  them,  and  they  with 
him,  into  a  relation  so  intimate  and  so  happy  that,  in  the  matter 
of  practical  religion,  not  only  can  they  imagine  nothing,  but  that 
they  can  desire  nothing  above  it  or  beyond. 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  55 

But  how  is  this  union  effected  ?  "  The  orphaned  human 
soul  and  the  distant  unknown  God  are  reunited  and 
embraced  in  fiUal  love,  to  be  no  more  divided  and  es- 
tranged," and  that  too,  through  the  ministry  of  Jesus 
Christ.  "Hence,"  he  continues,  «*  Christianity  is  not 
only  the  ideal,  but  an  historical  religion,  inseparably 
connected  not  only  with  the  maxims  of  morality  and 
with  the  doctrines  of  Jesus,  but  with  his  person  itself, 
and  with  the  permanent  action  of  the  new  spirit  which 
animated  him,  and  which  lives  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration in  his  disciples."  It  is,  therefore,  supremely  the 
revelation  and  restoration  of  the  *'  relationship  "  which 
has  been  made  actual  between  God  and  man  throufrh 

o 

the  personal  mediation  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  not  mere- 
ly, as  Mill  affirmed  of  religion  in  general,  "  the  strong 
and  earnest  direction  of  the  emotions  and  desires  toward 
an  ideal  object."  While  it  includes  this,  it  also  em- 
braces affiance  with  and  devotion  to  that  object  through 
redemption  in  our  blessed  Lord.  Consequently,  Her- 
der must  be  considered  as  keeping  within  the  limits  of 
prose  when  he  declared  that  "  Christ  must  be  viewed 
as  the  first  living  fountain  of  the  world's  purification, 
freedom,  and  happiness.  There  must  be  no  such  quali- 
fication as,  as  it  zuere,  or,  it  was  only  on  this  zuise,  but 
the  fact  must  be  embraced  in  its  most  active  character." 
Such,  then,  in  its  essence  and  in  its  fundamental  and 
universal  character,  and  quite  apart  from  doctrinal  form- 
ulas and  external  institutions,  is  the  Christian  religion; 
and  out  of  it  and  for  it  grows  the  church,  the  organism 
or  series  of  orsranisms  in  which  it  realizes  itself  and  ful- 
fills  itself  and  by  which  it  becomes  operative  in  the 
world's    history.      Of    this    great   administrative    force, 


56         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Lord  Bacon  and  ArchbishoiD  Seeker  write  in  terms 
that  bring  into  relief  its  comprehensiveness  and  its 
spiritual  majesty.  The  former  of  these  two  eminent 
men  has  bequeathed  to  posterity  this  definition  : 

There  is  a  universal  cathoHc  church  of  God,  dispersed  over 
the  face  of  die  eardi,  which  is  Christ's  spouse  and  Christ's  body  ; 
being  gathered  of  the  fathers  of  the  old  world,  of  the  church  of  the 
Jews,  of  the  spirits  of  the  faithful  dissolved,  and  the  spirits  of  the 
faithful  militant,  and  of  the  names  yet  to  be  born,  which  are  al- 
ready written  in  the  book  of  life. 

And  the  prelate  writes  : 

The  catholic  church  is  the  universal  church  spread  through 
the  world  ;  and  the  catholic  faith  is  the  universal  faith,  that  form 
of  doctrine  which  the  apostles  delivered  to  the  whole  church,  and 
it  received.  What  that  faith  was,  we  may  learn  from  their  writ- 
ings, contained  in  the  New  Testament ;  and,  at  so  great  a  distance 
of  time,  we  can  learn  it  with  certainty  nowhere  else.  Every  church 
or  society  of  Christians  that  preserves  this  catholic  or  universal 
f^iith,  accompanied  with  true  charity,  is  a  part  of  the  catholic  or 
universal  church.  And  in  this  sense,  churches  that  differ  widely 
in  several  notions  and  customs  may,  notwithstanding,  each  of  them 
be  truly  catholic  churches. 

The  clearest  and  most  reverent  thought  of  our  own 
times  accepts  these  definitions.  Even  now,  more  than 
when  they  were  penned,  it  is  perceived  that  it  is  not  the 
size  but  the  spirit  of  a  communion  which  determines  its 
rio-ht  to  the  name  catholic.  Some  of  the  smaller  and 
feebler  of  the  denominations  may  have  more  faith  and 
charity  than  some  of  the  larger  ones  ;  and  it  is  possible 
for  those  among  them  that  are  greatest  in  extent  to  be 
more  narrow,  local,  and  provincial  than  the  weakest.^ 

^On  this  section,  see  Martinean,  "Study  of  Religion,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  I  ; 
Clarke, "  OuUines  Christian  Theology,"  p.  i  ;  Fairbairn, "  Christ  in  Mod- 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  57 

By  the  very  terms  in  which  the  idea  of  religion,  es- 
pecially of  Christianity,  is  expressed,  its  divine  origin  is 
implied.  The  experience  of  the  devout  tallies  with  the 
reasoning  of  the  theologian,  that  the  kind  of  piety  which 
renovates,  enlightens,  and  exalts  the  inner  life  is  not  self- 
begotten,  but  must  be  traced,  even  beyond  human  in- 
strumentalities, to  a  heavenly  source  ;  and  remounting 
by  the  chain  of  successive  experiences  to  the  beginning, 
an  inaugural  experience  is  reached  and  the  deduction 
logically  established  that  the  entire  series  proceeded 
from  the  Infinite.  We  may  differ  in  our  philosophy  of 
means  employed  and  of  methods  adopted,  and  may  re- 
ject or  accept  miracles  as  the  necessary  accompaniments 
of  a  supernatural  revelation  given ;  but  if  we  think  of 
religion  in  any  true  sense  of  that  word,  we  can  hardly 
avoid  the  direct  recognition  of  God  as  its  author.  The 
existence  of  the  one  carries  with  it  the  reality  of  the 
other ;  and,  therefore,  I  desire  it  to  be  understood  tliat 
whatever  I  may  say  relative  to  the  human  element  in 
religion,  I  have  no  intention  of  denying  or  obscuring  the 
divine.  To  me,  it  is  self-evident  that  God  must  be  the 
supreme  factor,  not  only  in  its  inception,  but  in  its  de- 
velopment and  victories.  If  Christianity  is  not  the  ex- 
pression of  his  thought  and  of  his  Spirit,  and  if,  through- 
out its  progress,  he  has  not  been  present  and  opera- 
tive, then  it  is  a  mere  earthly  invention,  and  is  desti- 
tute of  authority  over  either  the  intellect  or  conscience. 

Mr.  Bailey  Saunders  inquires  :  "  Why  may  we  not 
maintain  that  religion  and  morality  grow,  after  the  same 

ern  Theology,"  p.  493;  Sabatier,  "Philosophy  of  Religion,"  pp.  108, 
139;  Mill,  "Utility  of  Religion"  ;  Herder,  ''  Erlcticteriingen,'"  p.  66; 
Seeker,  "  Church  Catechism." 


58         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

fashion  as  art  and  science,  by  the  intuitions  of  genius, 
which,  although  sometimes  pronounced  to  be  super- 
natural, is  the  flower  of  our  common  humanity  ? "  ^ 
The  answer  is  simple  and  explicit.  Religion  belongs  to 
a  different  class.  It  is  not  in  the  same  category  with 
art  or  science.  In  itself,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  a  revela- 
tion and  perfection  of  relations  between  the  creature 
and  the  Creator  ;  and  if  the  Creator  takes  no  part  in 
them,  then  they  are  not  realized  at  all ;  and  if  he  does, 
then  his  action  is  in  accord  with  his  own  nature,  and 
therefore  is  not  human  but  superhuman.  But  while 
this  position  is  fundamental  to  any  adequate  philosophy 
of  religion,  it  is  not  to  be  so  construed  as  to  exclude  the 
agency  and  co-operation  of  man  from  its  beginnings  or 
from  the  successive  steps  of  its  progress. 

Singular  to  record,  and  yet,  nevertheless,  true,  there 
has  seemingly  been  as  much  reluctance  on  the  part  of 
some  people  to  recognize  the  human  element  in  religion, 
l^articularly  in  Christianity,  as  there  has  been  on  the 
part  of  others  to  find  a  place  for  the  divine.  Between 
the  extremes  of  supernaturalism  and  rationalism,  both 
man  and  God  have  been  deprived  of  any  part  in  what 
concerns  them  most,  and  which,  without  either,  has 
only  a  fictitious  existence.  Efforts  to  controvert  this 
strange  prejudice  have  not  always  been  successful.  A 
fear  exists  in  not  a  few  quarters,  even  to-day,  that  too 
much  may  be  conceded  to  the  creature.  There  is  a 
suspicion  that  there  is  a  plot  afoot  to  rob  Jehovah  of 
his  glory.  It  has  seemed  to  some  minds  that  man 
ought  only  and  can  only  be  saved  as  an  automaton; 
to  others,  it  has  seemed  almost  impossible  to  have  an 

^  Saunders,    "  Quest  of  Faith,"  p.  190. 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  59 

inspired  Bible,  unless  in  the  communication  of  its  con- 
tents the  action  of  the  intellect  be  superseded  and  the 
very  movements  of  the  recording  pen  be  mechanically 
controlled  ;  and  to  yet  others,  it  has  appeared  revolu- 
tionary, not  to  say  profane,  for  any  one  to  challenge 
traditional  views  or  to  depart  from  prevalent  usages 
and  customs,  which,  because  of  their  venerable  age, 
have  come  to  be  regarded  as  sacred.  In  various  con- 
gregations, therefore,  things  are  stationary;  an  air  of 
hesitancy  prevails,  and  ministers  and  members  hardly 
know  how  far  they  may  venture  from  ancient  ways  and 
to  what  extent  they  may  attempt  new  things  without 
incurring  the  wrath  of  an  offended  Deity,  or  what,  per- 
haps, may  be  more  inconvenient,  the  anger  of  their 
clerical  seniors  and  more  infallible  lay  associates.  Not 
a  little  of  this  extraordinary  aversion  has  been  overcome 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  and  there  is,  on  the 
whole,  a  more  candid  recognition  of  the  human  element. 
Indeed,  had  it  been  otherwise,  many  of  the  remarkable 
movements  of  the  century  would  never  have  been  un- 
dertaken. But  while  this  is  true,  and  while  what  has 
been  accomplished  in  this  direction  within  the  last 
hundred  years  is  entitled  to  consideration,  much  yet 
remains  to  be  done  before  the  popular  mind  will  accord 
to  the  human  its  real  place  in  religion.  And  that  this 
place  be  clearly  perceived  is  so  necessary  to  an  intelli- 
gent comprehension  of  what  has  been  wrought  in  the 
past,  and  to  the  progress  of  religion  in  the  future,  that 
we  may  well  devote  some  thought  to  its  exposition. 

Herder  was  one  of  the  earliest  writers  who  realized 
deeply  the  importance  of  this  subject.  His  views  are 
thus  summarized  by  Hagenbach  : 


6o         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

He  achieved  a  real  reconciliation,  inasmuch  as  he  would  grant 
that  there  was  nothing  perfect  and  ready  in  man  which  had  not 
come  by  instruction,  history,  divine  communication,  and  revela- 
tion. But  he  believed,  further,  that  man  could  receive  and  assim- 
ilate nothing  from  without  unless  there  was  in  him  a  kindred 
power  by  which  to  recognize  what  was  suited  to  him,  receive  it, 
work  it  into  his  being,  give  an  exterior  development,  and  advance 
it  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  Thus,  for  example,  in  his  prize 
essay  on  the  "Origin  of  Language,"  he  attacked  the  apparently 
devout  but  mechanical  view,  that  man  received  language  alone 
from  without  and  by  divine  communication.  He  held  that  its 
origin  could  only  be  divine  in  so  far  as  it  was  human.  But  with 
Herder,  the  divine  and  human  did  not  constitute  an  antagonism. 
...  He  would  see  the  divine  reconciled  with  the  human,  and 
the  human  illuminated  and  dignified  by  the  divine.^ 

That  no  such  antagonism  exists,  and  that  this  co- 
ordination, however  explained,  of  the  finite  and  infinite, 
is  as  manifest  in  rehgion  as  in  the  origin  of  language,  is 
proven  at  every  stage  of  its  history.  Man,  from  the 
beginning,  is  the  medium  and  instrument  by  which 
God  discloses  himself,  and  the  message  as  transmitted 
always  bears  the  mark  of  the  individuality  which  re- 
ceived and  published  it,  just  as  a  river,  by  its  color, 
temperature,  and  the  drift  upon  its  bosom,  tells  the 
story  of  the  country  through  which  it  has  passed.  And 
as  the  earthly  elements  which  mingle  with  its  waters  at 
its  mouth  do  not  discredit  the  geographical  statement 
that  its  source  is  to  be  found  high  up  among  the  hills, 
so  the  human  traits  and  peculiarities  which  seem  in- 
separable from  every  alleged  divine  revelation  do  not 
necessarily  invalidate  its  claims  to  a  heavenly  origin. 

The  Old  Testament  is  an  example  in  point.      Every- 

1  Hagenbach's  "  History  of  Church,"  Vol.  II.,  p   31. 


THE    DIVINE   AND    HUMAN  6 1 

where  the  divine  word,  formulated  in  speech,  is  always 
characterized  by  the  Umitations  of  language,  by  the 
narrowness  and  quality  of  existing  knowledge,  and  by 
the  traditions,  customs,  and  habits  of  the  period.  He 
who  studies  the  book  carefully  will  find  it  almost  im- 
possible to  escape  the  conclusion  that,  however  divine 
is  its  content,  it  has  been  cast  in  a  human  mold.  It 
was  this  conviction  which  led  Luther  to  write  in  his 
"  Letters  on  the  Study  of  Theology  "  : 

My  dear  friend,  the  best  study  of  divinity  is  the  study  of  the 
Bible,  and  the  best  reading  of  the  Divine  Book  is  human.  The 
Bible  must  be  read  in  a  human  way,  for  it  was  written  by  men 
for  men.  The  more  humanly  we  read  God's  word,  the  nearer 
do  we  approach  the  purpose  of  its  Author,  who  created  man  in 
his  own  image,  and  deals  toward  us  humanly  in  all  those  works 
and  blessings  where  he  manifests  himself  to  us  as  God 

And  Hagenbach,  in  the  same  spirit,  expresses  himself 
in  these  terms  : 

But  even  this  [the  Bible]  has  its  human  side,  its  scientific  form, 
its  literary  expression,  and  its  fixed  circle  of  ideas.  What  seemed 
all-important  at  one  time  recedes  at  another  ;  the  expression  that 
was  true  in  connection  with  other  tendencies  is  no  more  under- 
stood by  another  generation,  which  has  grown  up  amid  other  cir- 
cumstances.^ 

But  what  is  everywhere  apparent  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  equally  prominent  in  the  New.  Therein  is 
enshrined  the  form  of  a  man.  He  is  its  central 
glory.  Of  him  it  speaks  ;  to  him  it  bears  testimony. 
And  while  he  is  unique  and  original,  he  is  also  typal 
and  prophetical.     He  is  called  the  Son  of  Man,  a  cos- 

^  "History  of  Church,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  5. 


62         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

mopolitan,  universal  title,  lifting  him  out  of  exclusive 
kinship  with  a  race,  and  making  him  representative  of 
the  entire  human  family.  Had  he  appeared  merely  to 
display  before  our  eyes  an  exceptional  being,  who  is 
ever  necessarily  apart  from  mankind,  he  would  simply 
have  charmed  us  as  a  wonder,  and  would  not  have  in- 
fluenced us  as  an  example  and  a  brother.  But  he  does 
not  seem  remote  from  us.  He  is  the  pattern  of  what 
is  possible  in  ourselves,  not  merely  in  the  way  of  conduct, 
but  in  the  way  of  experience  and  of  fellowship  with  the 
divine.  Some  of  the  poets  have  admirably  voiced  the 
yearning  of  the  common  heart  for  the  disclosure  of  the 
Infinite  in  such  tangible  form  as  would  render  him  real 
to  faith.     We  all  earnestly  cry  : 

For  a  God  whose  face 
Is  humanized  to  hneaments  of  love  ; 
Not  one  who,  when  my  hand  would  clasp  his  robe, 
Slips  as  a  flash  of  light  from  world  to  world, 
And  fades  from  form  to  form,  then  vanishes, 
Back  to  the  formless  sense  within  my  soul. 
Which  evermore  pursues  and  loses  him. 

And  this  longing  has  been  met  in  Christ.  He  relates 
himself  to  the  Father  as  his  embodiment  and  personifi- 
cation. Ye  have  seen  me,  ye  have  seen  the  Father 
also.  "I  and  my  Father  are  one."  These  are  his  sol- 
emn assurances,  assurances  which  inspired  Browning  to 
pen  the  magnificent  prophetic  outburst : 

O  Saul,  it  shall  be 
A  Face  like  my  face  that  receives  thee  ;  a  Man  like  to  me, 
Thou  shalt  love  and  be  loved  by,  forever  ;  a  Hand  like  this  hand 
Shall  throw  open  the  gates  of  new  life  to  thee  ! 
See  the  Christ  stand  ! 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  63 

But  this  indwelling  of  the  Father  in  him  is  sign  and 
proof  that  he  will  dwell  in  us,  and  evidence  conclusive 
that  religion  consists  in  affiance  and  relationship  between 
the  divine  and  human,  through  whose  joint  action  it 
takes  its  various  forms  and  realizes  itself  in  time.  And 
in  the  annals  of  the  apostolic  era,  we  behold  this  hu- 
man element  operating  with  the  greatest  freedom,  never 
apologizing  for  itself,  but  taking  for  granted  its  right 
to  co-operate  with  God  in  developing  the  new  faith. 
Gospels  are  penned,  which  disclose  the  idiosyncrasies  of 
their  authors;  Epistles  are  written,  in  which  may  be 
observed  similar  differences  in  style,  and  in  which  the 
writers  at  times  are  careful  to  discriminate  between 
what  is  specifically  from  God  and  what  is  their  own 
thought  or  opinion,  and  what  is  of  their  own  initiative 
and  authority. 

Morever,  we  have  accounts  of  differences  of  view  be- 
tween the  honored  and  equally  inspired  servants  of  Jesus 
Christ  ;  and  it  is  even  recorded,  after  the  manner  of  a 
modern  dispute,  "  that  Paul  withstood  Peter  to  his  face, 
for  he  was  wrong."  Considerable  liberty  was  evidently 
enjoyed  in  regard  to  worship  and  sacred  observances. 
The  disciples  were  only  gradually  weaned  from  Judaism. 
Our  Saviour  cast  the  gracious  germs  of  truth  into  its 
soil,  and  it  required  a  struggle  to  transplant  them.  At 
first  they  were  unable  to  escape  the  peculiar  influence 
of  their  original  surroundings,  and  when  they  did  they 
submitted  to  the  imprint  of  their  new  environment.  The 
apostles  changed  their  method  of  succoring  the  poor ; 
they  added  new  officers  to  the  church  as  they  saw  the 
necessities  of  the  age  demanded  ;  and  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  they  abandoned  their  original  ex- 


64         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

pectation  of  a  speedy  return  of  Christ  to  the  world. 
They  impress  us  as  being  anxious  to  shape  an  adequate 
"  earthen  vessel "  for  the  heavenly  treasure,  as  striving 
to  give  clearer  and  fuller  statements  of  doctrine  than 
were  given  at  the  first,  and  as  seeking  faithfully  for 
the  best  methods  and  appliances  by  which  the  grace  of 
Christ  could  be  made  operative  in  the  world.  Continu- 
ally they  manifest  unwillingness  for  religion  to  be  bound 
or  fettered  by  temporary  elements,  and  sweeping  away 
all  secondary  complications,  they  unceasingly  strive  to 
impart  to  it  the  greatest  independence  and  the  purest 
and  highest  spirituality. 

I  have  intimated  that,  on  the  close  of  the  primitive 
age  of  Christianity,  it  was  transplanted  from  Judaism" 
and  speedily  gave  evidence  of  its  new  associations  and 
conditions.  "  Transplanted  from  the  poor  and  arid  soil 
of  Hebraism  into  the  rich  and  fruitful  loam  of  Graeco- 
Roman  civilization,  the  Christian  plant  was  sure  to  grow 
apace  and  be  transformed."  In  this  way  does  Sabatier 
allude  to  the  phenomenon  we  are  studying,  and  he  con- 
tinues :  "  Catholicism  is  as  much  Pagan  as  Apostolical 
Messianism  was  Jewish — from  the  same  causes  and  ac- 
cording to  the  same  law.  More  Greek  in  the  East,  more 
Roman  in  the  West,  it  bears  always  and  everywhere  the 
traces  of  its  origin."  ^ 

Traces  of  all  the  rich  variety  of  ancient  thought  can 
readily  be  detected  in  the  earliest  and  most  permanent 
schools  of  theology.  Neo-Platonism  had  to  do  with  the 
doctrinal  notions  of  Athanasius  and  Augustine.  The 
latter  evidently  was  governed  in  no  small  degree  by 
Plato  in  his  interpretation  of  St.  Paul,  and  in  some  meas- 

1  Sabatier,    *' Phil,  of  Religion,"  p.    197. 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  65 

ure,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  by  the  constitution  of  the 
empire  itself.  Synesius,  also,  in  his  teachings,  con- 
stantly manifested  his  indebtedness  to  the  same  philoso- 
pher. And  the  same  influence  may  be  observed,  cen- 
turies after,  molding  Scotus  Erigena,  Hugo  of  St.  Vic- 
tor, Aquinas,  and  Dante.  Justin  Martyr,  Origen,  and 
Clement  revealed  the  effect  of  their  previous  studies 
when  they  came  to  deal  with  Christian  themes,  just  as 
Tertullian  in  his  theology  betrayed  at  almost  every  point 
his  juridical  education  and  bias.  The  writings  of  the 
Fathers  and  the  debates  of  councils  when  determining 
creed  forms,  cannot  be  read  without  recognizing  in  them 
something  of  the  Stoical,  Pythagorean,  and  Platonic  sys- 
tems, tempered  and  obscured  by  the  allegorical  mysti- 
cism of  Alexandria,  just  as  the  scholasticism  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  cannot  be  understood  apart  from  Aristotle. 
He  is  uninstructed,  or  is  singularly  un candid,  who  does 
not  acknowledge  that  the  oldest  theologies  of  Christen- 
dom are  Greek  in  their  concepts  and  coloring,  in  what 
they  say  of  substance  and  hypostasis,  of  essence  and 
accident,  of  form  and  matter.  Learned  volumes  have 
been  published,  setting  forth  at  great  length  this  con- 
nection between  philosophy — the  philosophy  of  the  an- 
cients— and  the  dogmatic  teachings  of  the  church  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries  ;  and  occasionally  their  aim 
has  been  in  this  way  to  discredit  Christianity  itself. 
But  there  is  no  warrant  in  the  admitted  facts  for  chal- 
lenging the  divine  origin  and  authority  of  our  faith. 
These  Fathers  and  Councils  were  striving  to  do  what 
they  had  a  perfect  right  to  do ;  and  in  attempting  to 
make  clear  and  expound  the  sublime  verities  of  religion, 
they  could  only  call  to  their  aid  the  modes  of  thought 


E 


66         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  the  speculations  they  had  mastered.  No  other 
means  were  available  to  them.  And  if  we  to-day  can 
make  evident  that  they  were  faulty  in  their  reasoning 
and  conclusions,  and  correct  their  misconceptions,  we 
shall  only  be  doing  what  they  did — defining  and  inter- 
preting according  to  the  light  we  have.  They  could  not 
do  otherwise,  and  we  ought  to  do  no  less  ;  and  their  ac- 
tion and  our  own  alike  go  far  toward  demonstrating  that 
the  human  element  has  an  indispensable  and  important 
part  to  play  in  the  progress  of  a  divine  religion. 

When  we  consider  the  organization  of  Christianity 
into  a  hierarchy  or  a  spiritual  imperialism,  the  handi- 
craft of  the  creature  is  again  conspicuous.  The  consti- 
tution of  the  church  becomes  a  counterpart  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire :  ^'  The  parish  modeling  itself  on  the 
municipality,  the  diocese  on  the  province,  the  metropol- 
itan regions  on  the  great  prefectures,  and,  at  the  top  of 
the  pyramid,  the  bishop  of  Rome,  and  the  Papacy, 
whose  ideal  dream  is  simply,  in  the  religious  order,  the 
universal  and  absolute  monarchy  of  which  the  Caesars 
had  just  set  the  pattern."  ^  Augustus  is  changed  into 
the  Holy  Father ;  and  the  pope,  becoming  Pontifex 
Maximus,  inherits  the  authority  of  the  imperators,  who, 
from  the  Eternal  City,  ruled  the  civilized  world.  But 
there  is  no  evidence  that  Jesus  ever  thought  of  creating 
any  such  society  as  this.  Nowhere  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment does  anything  like  it  appear.  Where  there  is  any 
allusion  to  a  church  at  all,  it  is  essentially  irreconcilable 
with  what  is  now  understood  by  an  episcopal  body. 
''Further,"  as  Principal  P\iirbairn  testifies,  "in  the 
church  of  the  New  Testament  the  politico-monarchical 

^Sabatier,  *' Philosophy  of  Religion,"  p.  198. 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  (yj 

idea  does  not  exist ;  there  is  no  shadow,  or  anticipation, 
or  prophecy  of  it.  The  churches  are  not  organized,  do 
not  constitute  a  formal  unity,  have  a  fraternal  but  no 
corporate  relation,  have  no  common  or  even  local  hier- 
archy;  they  are  divided  by  differences  that  preclude  the 
very  idea  of  an  infallible  head."  ^  But,  while  this  can- 
not be  denied,  and  while  the  congregational  principle  is 
distinctly  supreme  in  the  New  Testament,  and  while 
departure  from  it  at  the  first  was  a  serious  error,  we  must 
not  overlook  the  fact  that  the  growth  of  episcopacy  at 
the  beginning  was  gradual  and  was  designed  to  render 
more  effective  the  work  of  the  churches  and  to  perfect 
their  discipline.  It  was  but  another  instance  of  the 
human  asserting  itself  in  the  field  of  religion,  undertak- 
ing what  it  felt  itself  bound  to  undertake,  and,  in  doing 
so,  falling  into  a  mischievous  blunder,  which  ended  in 
fastening  on  the  Christian  world  an  ecclesiastical  organ- 
ization of  the  most  masterful  character. 

And  from  those  days  to  the  days  that  now  are,  this 
assertion  of  the  human  has  continued.  It  has  displayed 
itself  in  reformations,  in  the  preparation  of  creeds,  in 
theological  revisions,  in  modifications  of  church  govern- 
ment, and  in  many  other  ways ;  and  never  has  it  been 
more  persistent  and  active  than  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. When  its  interference  has  been  denounced,  when 
its  disclosure  of  itself  has  been  condemned,  and  when 
every  exhibition  of  itself  has  been  deprecated,  it  has 
still  continued  to  make  itself  seen  and  felt.  My  obser- 
vation justifies  me  in  adding  that  often  the  very  men 
who  have  repudiated  its  ministry  most  vehemently,  and 
who  have  most  indignantly  on  their  own  account  de- 

^Fairbairn,    "Catholicism,"  p.  177. 


68         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

clined  its  assistance,  have  usually,  perhaps  unconscious- 
ly, done  in  some  way  themselves  what  they  have  con- 
demned others  for  doing  ;  like  the  evangelists  who  insist 
that  the  only  thing  necessary  for  their  work  to  succeed 
is  the  divine  blessing,  while  they  are  diligently  employ- 
ing very  human  measures  ;  or  like  the  interpreters  who 
insist  on  verbal  inspiration,  and  yet,  with  amiable  incon- 
sistency, adopt  the  method  of  allegorical  exposition. 

It  would,  then,  seem  to  be  impossible  to  exclude  the 
human  element  from  religion.  Of  a  right  and  of  neces- 
sity, it  has  a  place  there  ;  and  without  it,  we  have  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  religion  could  have  been  called 
into  being  ;  and  without  it,  we  have  every  reason  for 
concluding  that  it  could  not  progress.  In  nature,  we 
have  an  analogy  of  its  place  and  function.  God  has 
buried  in  the  depths  of  the  earth  the  gold,  the  coal,  and 
the  oil ;  but  they  are  useless  until  man  discovers  them 
and  brings  them  forth.  He  also  gave  to  his  creatures 
the  wild  flowers  ;  and  if  these  flowers  are  ever  to  be  de- 
veloped into  greater  beauty,  it  will  be  through  human 
instrumentality.  He  furnishes  the  material,  the  basis, 
for  new  and  more  perfect  growths ;  and  if  it  is  not 
profane  and  presumptuous  for  man  to  take  in  hand  and 
work  up  into  higher  form  what  the  Almighty  has  fur- 
nished in  the  physical  world,  why  should  similar  inter- 
ference in  the  spiritual  be  regarded  with  suspicion  } 
Occasionally,  we  meet  with  those  who  delight  to  recall 
the  memory  of  the  wild  flowers  they  were  familiar  with 
in  youth  ;  but  this  sentiment  does  not  lead  them  to 
inveigh  against  "  American  Beauties,"  or  the  violets 
that  have  acquired  a  deeper  tinge  and  sweeter  fragrance 
through  intelligent  human  care.     Thus,  in  Christianity 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  69 

we  may  have  a  tender  recollection  of  old  and  crude  in- 
terpretations ;  but  it  were  hardly  wise  to  carry  our 
reverence  so  far  as  to  antagonize  the  new  light  of  the 
new  age. 

We  should  never  forget  that  God  has  evidently 
related  man  to  nature  as  he  has,  that,  by  his  inves- 
tigations and  labors,  he  may  become  intellectually 
stronger  and  greater.  Man  was  not  made  for  nature, 
but  nature  was  made  for  man.  The  same  rule  applies 
to  rehgion.  It  must  engage  his  attention,  rouse  his 
curiosity,  impel  his  energy,  constantly  draw  him  out, 
keep  him  stirred  up,  seeking,  improving,  transforming. 
Christ  said  man  is  greater  than  the  temple  ;  also  that 
the  Sabbath  was  made  for  man,  not  man  for  the  Sab- 
bath ;  and,  further  even,  religion,  as  far  as  it  was  in  any 
real  sense  made,  was  made  for  man,  not  man  for  religion. 
A  perfect  religion  is  not  so  desirable  or  valuable  as  a 
religion  that  goes  to  make  man  perfect.  Were  it  com- 
plete, with  no  reason  for  or  possibility  of  amendment  or 
change,  it  would  possess  no  charm,  it  would  rouse  no 
latent  powers.  But,  being,  as  it  is,  continually  capable 
of  enlargement  and  development,  the  human  element 
necessarily  has  free  scope,  and  its  normal  action  lends 
itself  to  the  discipline  and  development  of  character. 
How  important,  then,  that  it  be  so  guided,  enlightened, 
restrained,  and  yet  inspired,  that  it  may  not  transcend  its 
legitimate  bounds,  and  may  fulfill  its  vocation  in  such  a 
way  as  to  promote  and  not  retard,  dwarf,  or  pervert  the 
religion  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Lord  Macaulay  advanced  the  opinion  that  neither 
natural  nor  revealed  theology  could  be  progressive. 
He  says  : 


70         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

All  divine  truth  is,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Protestant 
churches,  recorded  in  certain  books.  It  is  equally  open  to  all 
who  can  read  those  books  ;  nor  can  all  the  discoveries  of  all  the 
philosophers  in  the  world  add  a  single  verse  to  any  of  those  books. 
It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  in  divinity  there  cannot  be  a  progress 
analogous  to  that  which  is  constantly  taking  place  in  pharmacy, 
geology,  and  navigation,^ 

Dr.  Draper  goes  further  than  the  essayist  ;  for  he 
affirms  that  a  religion  based  on  revelation  *'  must  repu- 
diate all  improvement  in  itself,  and  view  with  disdain 
that  arising  from  the  progressive  intellectual  develop- 
ment of  man."  ^  Obscurantist  theologians  have  sided 
with  these  views,  and  have  set  forth  the  Confessions  of 
the  reformed  churches  or  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  as  pre- 
senting a  permanent  systematization  of  inspired  truth  ; 
but  in  my  judgment,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and 
Athanasius  entertained  a  more  philosophical  and  scrip- 
tural doctrine.  They  taught  that  God  is  always  present, 
and  continually  reveals  himself  in  nature  and  in  the 
mind  of  man.  Nor  is  it  accurate  to  represent  certain 
sacred  books  as  claiming  to  contain  all  truth  on  the 
subject  of  religion.  Our  Lord  told  his  disciples  that 
there  were  other  things  he  had  not  revealed,  because 
they  were  not  then  able  to  receive  them  ;  but  that  when 
the  Comforter  was  come,  he  would  guide  them  into  all 
truth.  It  is  often  hastily  concluded  that  this  promise 
was  not  designed  to  go  beyond  the  apostles  and  their 
age  ;  but  such  a  limitation  is  purely  arbitrary.  Nowhere 
in  the  New  Testament  is  it  sustained.  Rather  do  the 
Epistles  warrant  the  expectation  of  continued  and  en- 

^  Essay  on  "  History  of  Popes." 
2  "  Conflict  Between  Religion  and  Science." 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  /I 

during  illumination  and  guidance.  To  ignore  these 
assurances,  and  to  conclude  that  while  we  can  go  for- 
ward in  lower  things  we  cannot  advance  in  the  highest, 
is  a  mockery  of  the  onward  march  of  the  race,  and  can 
only  be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  both  the 
nature  of  Christianity  and  the  relation  of  the  human 
element  to  its  existence  and  well-being  have  been  radi- 
cally misconceived.  Let  me  attempt  to  justify  this 
statement ;  for,  in  so  doing,  we  shall  be  able,  in  some 
measure,  to  vindicate  the  Faith  and  remove  obstacles 
from  the  path  of  future  progress. 

Christianity  is  unquestionably  a  ''  book  religion,"  and, 
as  such,  it  must  ever  be  the  subject  of  interpretation. 
We  are  consequently  commanded  to  '*  search  the  Scrip- 
tures "  ;  but  at  the  same  time,  we  are  admonished  to 
remember  that  the  letter  killeth  and  that  only  the  spirit 
giveth  life.  Likewise,  it  was  explicitly  declared  by  the 
Saviour  that  his  words  are  spirit  and  life  as  well.  We 
have  here  an  important  discrimination.  The  literal  text 
is  one  thing,  and  a  necessary  thing  ;  but  after  all,  there 
is  something  higher  than  it — tJie  meaning,  which  it  can 
only  adumbrate  and  never  fully  convey.  For  what 
words  can  explore  and  elucidate  all  that  is  compre- 
hended in  the  soul's  relationship  to  God  }  How  can 
they,  by  any  conceivable  combinations,  translate  infinite 
attributes  into  compassable  ideas  }  And  how  can  they, 
being  the  crude  images  of  man's  own  thought,  and 
usually  taken  from  the  vocabularies  of  earthly  interests, 
exhaustively  represent  the  thought  of  the  eternal  and 
the  absolute  }  At  best,  they  are  but  coverings,  like  the 
outer  envelopment  of  the  seed,  barely  suggesting  the 
form  and  glory  of  the  germ  within  ;  or  they  are  only  as 


72         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  rough  surface  of  the  diamond,  a  sign  and  symbol  of 
imprisoned  light.  If  the  light  is  to  be  released,  there 
must  be  effort,  search,  and  still  from  its  very  vastness 
there  must  ever  be  much  remaining  incomprehensible. 
And  it  stands  to  reason  that  the  more  knowledge  man 
possesses  of  the  universe  in  general,  the  more  highly  he 
has  been  trained  to  reflect  and  perceive,  and  the  more 
fully  he  abandons  himself  to  the  influences  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  more  enlightened  and  the  more  exalted  will 
be  his  interpretations  of  God's  truth,  and  very  likely  the 
less  will  they  conform  to  accepted  standards,  which  have 
usually  been  colored  by  the  local  exigencies  which  called 
them  into  being. 

Of  this  principle,  have  we  not  an  illustration  in  what 
St,  Peter  wrote  of  ancient  prophecy  ?  He  says  :  "  We 
have  also  a  more  sure  word  of  prophecy  ;  whereunto  ye 
do  well  that  ye  take  heed,  as  unto  a  light  that  shineth  in  a 
dark  place,  ?/;////  t/ie  day  daiun,  and  the  daysiar  arise  in 
your  hearts^  ^  The  word  of  prophecy  is  not  everything  ; 
the  illumination  is  necessary,  and  that  may  change  the 
seeming  aspect  of  its  teaching.  Our  duty  is  "  to  take 
heed,"  to  study  it,  to  bring  to  bear  on  it  the  available 
treasures  of  thought  and  learning,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  make  way  for  the  day-star  to  arise  in  our  hearts  and 
throw  its  rays  on  the  darkness  we  seek  to  penetrate. 
As  seen  in  this  light,  we  have  no  guarantee  that  the 
interpretation  will  agree  with  what  has  been  set  forth 
by  earlier  human  teachers ;  but  however  that  may  be, 
we  are  justified  by  this  text  in  expecting  larger  and 
more  progressive  views  of  divine  truth  in  proportion  as 
we  search,  and  the  day-dawn  of  the  spirit  acts  on  the 

^  2  Peter  i  :  19. 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  73 

soul  as  the  dawning  on  the  landscape,  bringing  into 
relief  the  mountains  whose  outlines  have  only  heretofore 
been  dimly  discerned,  and  revealing  all  the  wealth  of 
nature's  loveliness  and  charm. 

While  we  may  well  hesitate  to  subscribe,  without 
saving  restrictions,  to  the  old  Greek  skeptic's  assertion 
that,  "  Man  is  the  measure  of  all  things,"  and  while  it 
is  doubtful  whether  human  nature  ultimately  supplies 
the  criteria  of  truth,  it  is  evident  that  what  he  is  him- 
self in  culture,  in  learning,  in  spiritual  development, 
will  determine  his  expositions  of  revealed  religion.  He 
cannot  transcend  himself.  And  what  is  true  of  an 
individual  is  true  of  a  community  and  of  an  age. 
Pobyedonostseff  repeats  the  following  story  from  an 
Arabic  poem  : 

Once  Moses  came  upon  a  shepherd  praying  in  the  wilderness 
to  God.  This  was  the  shepherd' s  prayer  :  "How  shall  I  know 
where  to  find  thee,  and  how  to  be  thy  servant  ?  How  I  should 
wish  to  put  on  thy  sandals,  to  comb  thy  hair,  to  wash  thy  gar- 
ments, to  kiss  thy  feet,  to  care  for  thy  dwelling,  to  give  thee  milk 
from  my  herd  ;  for  such  is  the  desire  of  my  heart  ! ' '  Moses, 
when  he  heard  the  words  of  the  shepherd,  was  angered  and  re- 
proached him.  "  Thou  blasphemest  !  The  Most  High  God  has 
no  body  ;  he  wants  neither  clothing  nor  dwelling  nor  service. 
What  dost  thou  mean,  unbeliever  ?  "  The  heart  of  the  shepherd 
was  saddened,  because  he  could  not  conceive  a  being  without 
bodily  form  and  corporeal  needs  ;  he  was  taken  by  despair  and 
ceased  to  serve  the  Lord.  But  God  spoke  to  Moses  and  said  : 
"Why  hast  thou  driven  away  from  me  my  servant?  .  .  To  me 
words  are  nothing.      I  look  into  the  heart  of  man."^ 

From  this  parable  of  Djelalledin,  we  perceive  what 
he  saw,  that  the  shepherd  could  not  rise  above  the  level 

^  "Reflections  of  a  Russian  Statesman,"  p.  154. 


74         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

of  his  meagre  intelligence,  and  that  he  could  only  inter- 
pret God  and  the  things  of  God  in  harmony  with  his  own 
simple  attainments.  But  his  failure  makes  manifest  the 
possibility  of  other  and  higher  conceptions,  if  the  con- 
ditions are  changed.  That  is,  a  mind  not  in  bondage  to 
the  shepherd's  ignorance  would  escape  from  his  extreme 
anthropomorphism  and  would  arrive  at  a  loftier  view  of 
the  Supreme.  We  are  also  to  learn  from  the  parable 
the  duty  of  patience  with  those  whose  lack  of  mental 
grasp  and  whose  bondage  to  crude  traditions  keep  them 
ever  formulating  theologies  after  the  most  childish  and 
kindergarten  fashion.  But  patience  must  not  degener- 
ate into  indifference  or  into  a  willing  connivance  with 
error.  The  fact  that  higher,  deeper,  and  more  spiritual 
conceptions  are  attainable,  indicates  that  we  owe  it  to 
our  Lord  and  to  his  kingdom  to  use  our  utmost  en- 
deavors to  create  them  and  to  bring  to  their  creation  all 
the  treasures  of  our  scholarship  and  reflection.  It  will 
not  do  to  plead  that  if  we  do  this  we  shall  be  criticised 
and  may  lose  caste  among  our  contemporaries.  All 
disabilities  we  must  risk.  The  human  element  is  in 
religion  for  this  very  purpose,  that  it  may  unfold  the 
teachings  of  Christianity,  may  develop  its  ideals,  may 
unveil  its  mysteries,  may  enable  the  soul  more  clearly 
to  behold  God  as  he  is,  and  may  purge  theology  from 
all  belittling  and  superstitious  dogmas.  This  comes 
within  the  scope  of  its  legitimate  and  necessary  voca- 
tion, and  its  fulfillment  is  not  only  inseparable  from 
religious  progress,  but  is  in  a  very  real  sense  a  phase  of 
the  progress  itself. 

But  when  Christianity  is  represented  as  a  book  relig- 
ion, its  significance  has  not  been  exhausted.     It  is  like- 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  75 

wise  spiritual — a  term  that  carries  with  it  a  suggestion  of 
most  gracious  personal  experiences.  Our  Lord  promised 
the  Comforter,  the  Holy  Spirit ;  and  the  history  of  the 
period  following  his  ascension  is  full  of  accounts  which 
bring  into  prominence  the  ministry  of  the  Paraclete. 
It  was  his  descent  which  brought  the  enlarging  and  eman- 
cipating blessings  of  Pentecost.  And  these  were  not 
designed  to  be  exceptional  and  evanescent ;  for  Christ 
assured  his  disciples  of  their  permanence :  "  If  a  man 
love  me,  he  will  keep  my  words  ;  and  my  Father  will 
love  him,  and  we  will  come  unto  him,  and  make  our 
abode  zvith  himr  ♦*  For  he  dwelleth  with  you  and  shall 
be  in  you."  Subsequently,  when  the  council  of  Jeru- 
salem came  to  the  close  of  its  session,  the  record  of  its 
findings  runs  in  such  a  way  as  to  reveal  the  most  inti- 
mate relation  between  the  divine  and  human  :  "  It 
seemed  good  to  the  Holy  Ghost  and  to  ?is.''  <'And  to 
us  "  indicates  an  interblending  of  the  two  intelligences, 
the  mind  of  God  and  the  mind  of  man,  and  declares  that 
the  decision  reached  was  agreeable  to  both.  Of  God's 
people,  it  is  written  :  "  A  holy  temple  in  the  Lord,  in 
whom  ye  also  are  builded  together  for  a  habitation  of 
God  through  the  Spirit."  And  ''Know  ye  not  that  ye 
are  the  temple  of  God  and  that  the  spirit  of  God  dwelleth 
in  you  .-*  "  Professor  Harnack  is,  therefore,  warranted 
in  declaring  that  ''originally  the  church  was  the  heav- 
enly bride  of  Christ  and  the  abiding-place  of  the  Holy 
Spirit."  But,  more  than  this.  Bishop  Webb  is  in  accord 
with  the  Scriptures  when  he  adds  :  "The  Holy  Spirit 
not  only  dwells  in  the  church  as  his  habitation,  but  also 
uses  her  as  the  living  organism  whereby  he  moves  and 
walks  forth  in  the  world  and  speaks  to  the  ivorld  and  acts 


j6         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

upon  the  world."  Even  Gregory  Nazianzen  perceived 
this  centuries  ago  and  expressed  it  in  yet  stronger  lan- 
guage :  "  But  now  the  Holy  Ghost  is  given  more  perfect- 
ly, for  he  is  no  longer  present  by  his  operations  as  of 
old,  but  is  present  with  us,  so  to  speak,  and  converses 
with  lis  in  a  substantial  manner!'  And  Cardinal  Man- 
ning acknowledges  that  we  are  ''  under  the  personal 
guidance  of  the  Third  Person,  as  truly  as  the  apostles 
were  under  the  guidance  of  the  Second."  ^  These  vari- 
ous and  yet  kindred  statements  from  the  pens  of  men 
inspired  and  uninspired,  point  to  only  one  conclusion, 
that  Christianity  is  not  merely  a  book  reUgion,  a  religion 
that  discloses  nominal  relations  between  God  and  man, 
but  is  an  experimental  religion,  that  is,  one  which  makes 
these  relations  actual  in  the  sphere  of  personal  experi- 
ence. Man  lives  with  God,  communes  with  him,  re- 
ceives him,  is  influenced  by  him,  while  he,  in  turn,  lives 
with  him,  talks  with  him,  and  speaks  through  him  to  the 
world. 

Out  of  this  relationship,  there  are  forced  on  us  two 
reasonable  inferences.  The  first  is  that  the  divine  rev- 
elation of  himself  is  not  yet  complete.  It  has  always 
seemed  a  violent  assumption  on  the  part  of  certain  theo- 
logians that  the  Almighty  had  no  other  message  to  give 
mankind  beyond  what  is  contained  in  Holy  Writ.  That 
he  should  have  spoken  to  a  group  of  Hebrews  and  then 
have  fallen  dumb  forever  demands  a  tremendous  amount 
of  credulity  to  accept.  His  silence  in  the  presence  of 
ages  differing  in  knowledge  and  culture  from  the  primi- 


1  On  this  section,  see  John  14,  16,  20  ;  Acts  2,  10,  II  ;  Rom.  8  :  11-23  ; 
I  Cor.  12  ;  I  Cor.  3  :  16  ;  6  :  19  ;  Gal.  5:5;  Manning,  "Temporal  Mis- 
sion of  Holy  Ghost"  ;  Luthardt,  "  Saving  Truths,"  Chap.  VI. 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  'J'J 

tive  period,  when  it  is  alleged  he  frequently  opened  his 
lips,  is,  to  say  the  least  of  it,  were  it  true,  extraordinary 
and  disquieting.  The  human  intellect,  having  outgrown 
the  conceptions  of  antiquity,  and  having  to  face  new 
problems,  and  problems  never  anticipated  by  the  authors 
of  the  New  Testament,  it  would  seem  as  though  the  In- 
finite mind  ought  to  express  itself  anew ;  and  I,  for  one, 
believe  that  during  these  nineteen  centuries,  he  has 
not  copied  the  reticence  of  the  Sphinx.  Abiding  with 
man,  he  yet  discloses  himself  to  man  ;  and  these  commu- 
nications would  have  been  more  clearly  perceived  but 
for  the  obstinate  determination  in  some  circles  not  to 
regard  them  as  possible. 

While  the  Bible  contains  a  supreme  revelation,  and 
while  no  fresh  light  will  set  aside  its  teachings  or  super- 
sede its  authority,  it  is  also  an  example  of  a  permanent 
method  in  the  divine  dealings  with  the  church.  Holy 
men  of  old  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit  ; 
and  holy  men  may  yet  speak  under  the  same  gracious 
impulse.  What  has  been  done  is,  within  limits,  yet  pos- 
sible ;  and  if  supplementary  communications  already 
made,  or  to  be  made,  are  not  collected  in  a  book  to  be- 
come, like  the  Bible,  a  rule  of  faith  and  practice,  the  rea- 
son is  that  one  such  rule  or  measurement  by  which  all 
"  the  spirits  are  to  be  tried  "  is  quite  sufficient  ;  and  that 
it  is  now  apparently  the  design  of  God  to  distribute  his 
messages  through  many  volumes,  where  they  may  sur- 
prise the  common  reader  and  influence  his  thought  and 
life,  and  not  be  restricted  to  a  single  official  and  author- 
ized standard.  This  does  not  in  any  way  affect  the 
unique  position  and  authority  of  Holy  Writ.  It  remains 
the  one  standard  to  which  all  teachings  must  be  brought 


yS         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

for  trial.  It  is  the  one  great  and  reliable  judge  of  what 
is  of  God  and  in  harmony  with  the  mind  of  God.  Still 
does  it  govern  in  the  councils  of  his  church  and  in  the 
shaping  of  doctrine. 

But,  in  addition,  the  stress  laid  in  the  New  Testament 
on  the  actual  relationship  between  the  human  and  divine 
warrants  a  second  inference,  that  the  spiritual  growth 
and  increasing  purity  of  the  soul  are  due  to  this  inter- 
course. When  it  is  asked.  How  does  a  man  become 
better  through  religion  ?  the  true  answer  is,  By  contact 
with  God — contact  close  and  enduring.  It  was  often 
the  Master's  touch  that  imparted  healing,  and  healing  al- 
ways necessitated  his  presence  or  his  word.  In  the  sub- 
limer  experiences  of  the  soul,  the  explanation  of  the 
changes  wrought  is  to  be  found  in  similar  contact. 
There  is  a  vague  impression  abroad  that  the  new  life  is 
the  result  of  some  kind  of  mechanical  reconstruction  ; 
whereas,  like  all  life,  it  springs  from  relationships,  and 
its  development  is  fostered  in  the  same  manner.  Hence, 
the  importance  of  prayer  ;  for  what  is  prayer,  if  it  is  not 
the  intercourse  of  man  with  God  ?  And  hence,  the 
constant  command  that  we  walk  with  God ;  for  how  can 
two  agree  if  they  walk  not  together  ?  The  more  deeply 
this  is  realized,  the  fuller  and  more  complete  will  be  our 
affiance  with  the  Eternal  Spirit ;  and  if  we  converse  with 
him,  seek  his  illumination,  and  strive  to  preserve  his 
fellowship,  we  shall  necessarily  become  more  conscien- 
tious, more  devout,  and  more  self-sacrificing. 

And  along  this  line,  progress  has  been  made  during 
the  last  hundred  years.  More  volumes  have  been  pub- 
lished relative  to  the  mission  of  the  Holy  Spirit  than  at 
any  other  period  ;  and  never  in  the  past,  at  least  since 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  79 

the  apostolic  age,  has  the  church  manifested  as  much 
anxiety  for  his  presence  and  power.  While,  doubtless, 
the  views  here  expressed  are  in  advance  of  accepted  be- 
liefs, it  seems  to  me  that  the  thought  of  the  church  is 
moving  continually  in  their  direction.  But  whatever 
may  be  true  as  to  her  thought,  her  life  has  furnished 
evidence  that  she  feels  an  increasing  desire  to  be  gov- 
erned and  swayed  by  the  Spirit  of  God  ;  and  unquestion- 
ably it  is  her  duty,  even  as  it  is  her  privilege,  to  press 
forward  toward  the  attainment  of  this  glorious  end.  In 
this  way  the  human  continues  to  fulfill  itself  in  a  divine 
religion,  and  in  so  doing  brings  out  the  spiritual  nature 
of  religion  and  exalts  it  higher  and  higher  above  the 
superstitions  and  meretricious  systems  which  have  too 
long  posed  in  its  name.  We  are  often  dissatisfied  that 
the  results  are  so  slow  in  maturing,  and,  moreover,  be- 
cause, to  all  appearances,  the  object  cannot  be  achieved 
by  methods  more  direct  and  more  speedy  in  their  work- 
ing ;  but  why  complain  .''  All  substances  and  agencies 
can  only  operate  in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  their  be- 
ing ;  and  it  is  foolish  in  us  to  expect  them  to  do  otherwise. 
The  story  is  told  of  Richard  Wagner  that  an  eminent 
orchestral  leader  went  to  him  on  one  occasion  and  of- 
fered to  resign,  as  he  found  it  impossible  to  execute  the 
score,  and  his  band  could  do  no  better  than  himself  ;  and 
that  the  eminent  composer  replied  that  he  must  go  back 
to  his  task,  as  he  never  expected  the  musicians  to  play 
the  score  as  it  was  written,  and  had  only  designed  that 
they  should  approximate  to  it,  and  that,  in  so  doing, 
they  were  producing  the  effect  contemplated.  Neither 
ought  we  to  allow  ourselves  to  be  disheartened  by  the 
slow  progress  made  in  realizing   the  highest  ideals,  nor 


80         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

by  our  failures  completely  to  reproduce  them  in  our  lives. 
Were  God  to  answer,  he  would  remind  us  that  in  relig- 
ion he  ever  keeps  the  ideal  ahead  of  the  actual,  that  we 
may  continually  strive  after  it ;  and  that  by  our  conscious 
inability  to  do  more  than  approximate,  we  are  carrying 
out  his  plan,  which  is,  by  constant  endeavors  toward 
perfection  to  develop  our  own  spiritual  being,  and  there- 
by to  impress  the  world  with  something  of  the  magni- 
tude and  of  the  unapproachable  sublimity  of  what  is  in- 
volved in  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ. 

There  is  still  another  aspect  of  this  religion  to  be 
considered.  It  is  not  only  distinguished  by  its  revela- 
tion and  by  its  spirituality,  it  is  also  remarkable  for  its 
practical  genius.  Christianity  is  not  a  faith  to  be 
secretly  cherished,  nor  an  experience  to  be  privately 
enjoyed,  but  a  work  designed  to  be  operative  in  the 
manifold  departments  of  human  life.  When,  blinded 
to  its  true  vocation,  it  has  sought  to  fulfill  itself  supremely 
in  glittering  ceremonials,  in  stately  processionings,  and 
in  a  wearisome  round  of  sacerdotal  observances,  it  has 
surely  lost  its  hold  on  society  as  an  invigorating  and 
regenerating  force.  The  God-ordained  sphere  of  the 
spiritual  is  the  secular ;  and  when  it  gives  too  much 
thought  and  labor  to  the  elaboration  of  rubrics,  and  to 
the  cut  and  shape  of  ecclesiastical  robes,  the  energy 
that  ought  to  have  spent  itself  on  social  reforms  is  ex- 
hausted, and  the  phenomenon  is  presented  of  a  church 
growing  in  splendor  and  afifluence,  while  the  community 
where  it  dwells  and  which  it  ought  to  have  blessed 
slowly  declines  in  strength  and  in  those  high  qualities 
which  make  for  prosperity  and  happiness.  I  have  no 
hesitancy  in  saying  that  history  has  proven  that  when- 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  51 

ever  a  church  has  lived  for  herself,  for  her  own  aggran- 
dizement, for  her  own  political  power,  and  for  her  own 
magnificence,  she  has  become  an  intolerable  burden  and 
a  barrier  in  the  way  of  human  progress.  Why  should 
she  be  different  from  her  Lord  ?  He  saved  others,  but 
himself  he  could  not  save ;  for  to  save  others,  it  was 
necessary  that  he  should  sacrifice  himself ;  and  the 
principle  which  governed  his  ministry  will  hold  good 
as  long  as  the  world  endures.  Therefore,  the  church 
is  bound  to  fasten  her  gaze  on  society  more  than  on 
herself,  and  to  consecrate  herself  to  the  work  of  mak- 
ing society  more  and  more  Christian. 

Toward  the  higher  view,  that  the  church  is  to  realize 
herself  and  her  mission  in  the  progress  and  improve- 
ment of  mankind,  marked  strides  have  been  taken  dur- 
ing recent  years.  It  is  not,  however,  to  be  regarded  as 
a  novelty  ;  for  not  only  does  it  appear  in  the  teachings 
of  Christ,  but  germinally  it  may  be  traced  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers.  Justin  Martyr  and  Clement  of 
Alexandria  have  visions  similar  to  Augustine's  "  City  of 
God,"  in  which  the  divine  life,  extending  through  and 
mastering  the  race,  is  contemplated  and  developed. 
Origen,  with  even  greater  clearness,  in  his  treatise  ^'  De 
Principiis^''  anticipated  the  triumph  of  the  Christian 
spirit  in  all  the  varied  relations  and  multiform  interests  of 
society.  The  Alexandrian  theology,  which  for  many 
years  suffered  eclipse  from  the  singular  fascination  of 
Augustine's  reasoning,  has  of  late  emerged  from  the 
shadow,  and  has  revived  the  earlier  conceptions  of  a 
kingdom  embracing  within  its  ample  boundary  everything 
divine  and  human.  Dr.  Arnold,  of  Rugby,  was  one  of  the 
first  English  expounders  of  the  theory.    Dean  Fremantle 


82         CIIRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

has  pushed  it  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  the  rulers  of 
nations,  and  not  the  clergy  only,  are  the  ministers  of 
religion.  Theologians  like  Maurice,  Flint,  Bruce,  Mul- 
ford,  Ritschl,  Rothe,  Martensen,  and  a  multitude  of 
others,  have  advocated  the  same  general  conception,  and 
have  insisted  on  the  consecration  and  sanctity  of  all  life. 
As  a  result  of  this  return  to  what  I  am  bound  to  regard 
as  the  thought  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  age  has  witnessed 
an  encouraging  diffusion  of  Christian  sentiment  and  the 
not  altogether  unsuccessful  attempts  of  the  Christian 
soul  to  incarnate  itself  in  the  gross  body  of  secular 
society.  Not  that  this  union  is  complete  or  anything 
like  it.  But  it  has  made  some  progress,  and  the 
heavenly  spirit  has  at  times  been  able  to  refine  and 
beautify  its  earthly  tenements.  There  are  to-day  multi- 
plied philanthropies,  reforms,  and  the  almost  endless 
benefactions  on  behalf  of  the  suffering  and  oppressed. 
While  it  is  impossible  to  close  our  eyes  to  the  failures 
of  the  church  to  remedy  manifold  evils,  still  it  does 
seem  as  though  she  had  rendered  the  public,  if  not  the 
official,  conscience  more  sensitive  than  formerly,  and 
had  been  able  to  soften  it,  if  not  so  to  enlighten  it  as  to 
make  it  a  faithful  guide.  But  on  this  subject  I  can 
only  speak  in  general  terms  at  present.  It  is  too  early 
in  the  development  of  my  theme  to  undertake  anything 
like  accurate  measurements  of  religious  achievements 
or  shortcomings.  All  I  desire  to  accentuate  in  this 
connection  is,  that  there  has  been  an  advance,  that 
Christianity  has  gone  farther  than  in  former  times  to- 
ward the  leavening  of  the  world's  life,  and  that  her 
influence  is  conspicuous  in  the  moral  affairs  of  society. 
It  is  occasionally  intimated  that  instead  of  moving 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  83 

onward  there  are  not  lacking  signs  of  her  waning  power 
over  thought  and  activity.  Among  these,  the  diminished 
attendance  on  church  services  has  been  singled  out 
particularly.  It  has  been  repeatedly  said  that  the 
sanctuary  is  being  more  and  more  neglected,  and  that 
consequently,  while  Christian  sentiment  may  have  gained. 
Christian  faith  has  evidently  lost  ground.  I  am  not 
oblivious  to  the  seriousness  of  this  falling  away,  and 
shall  discuss  it  later ;  neither  am  I,  however,  disposed  to 
be  unduly  alarmed  by  its  proportions.  Church  attend- 
ance is  frequently  affected  by  local  circumstances,  or 
may  be  determined  by  the  temporary  supremacy  of  cer- 
tain general  unfavorable  conditions,  such  as  war,  or  the 
absorbing  claims  of  unexpected  and  much-desired  busi- 
ness prosperity.  At  times  the  migration  of  citizens, 
the  apathy  of  pastors,  the  wrangling  of  discordant  saints, 
the  encroachments  of  Sabbath  work,  or  the  mistaken 
assumption  that  the  gospel  has  no  more  to  do  in  a  par- 
ticular community,  may  account  for  the  diminished 
number  of  worshipers  without  having  recourse  to  the 
explanation  that  they  have  ceased  to  have  confidence  in 
Christianity  itself.  A  new  voice  in  the  pulpit,  a  quick- 
ened interest  in  the  congregation,  a  fresh  consciousness 
that  spiritual  life  is  returning,  and  the  entire  aspect  of 
affairs  may  change.  And  if  on  a  wide  scale  there  is  a 
departure  from  the  public  solemnities  of  God's  house, 
some  such  awakening  may  produce  equally  desirable 
results.  Deplorable  as  the  forsaken  courts  of  the  Lord 
appear  at  present,  we  should  not  abandon  hope  that  a 
reaction  must  come.  What  is  now  so  depressing  we 
have  no  reason  to  regard  as  a  permanent  condition  and 
an  irreversible  finality.      Local  congregations  fluctuate 


84        CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  their  size  is  often  determined  by  other  than  reUgious 
convictions;  and  the  same  rule  is  applicable  to  church 
attendance  generally.  Without  in  the  least  undertak- 
ing to  minimize  the  significance  of  the  many  vacant 
seats  in  the  sanctuary,  we  ought  not  so  to  magnify  it  as 
to  become  panic-stricken.  Moreover,  we  should  remem- 
ber, while  crowds  of  people  do  not  everywhere  seek  her 
altars,  the  beneficent  and  undiminished  power  of  Chris- 
tianity is  manifested  on  every  side,  in  the  literature  she 
has  inspired,  in  the  schools  she  has  founded,  in  the 
criminals  she  has  reclaimed,  in  the  benefactions  she  has 
inaugurated  ;  and  if  there  are  still  domains,  such  as  the 
political,  the  industrial,  the  artistic,  the  commercial, 
where  her  conquests  have  been  partial  and  are  even  now 
precarious,  we  should  nevertheless  believe  from  what  she 
has  wrought  in  the  past  that  she  is  bound  to  succeed  even 
thus  in  the  future.  Her  warfare  is  yet  incomplete. 
She  is  in  the  midst  of  the  battle  ;  and  could  it  be  shown 
that  her  failure  to  penetrate  the  lines  of  the  foe  was 
more  serious  than  it  is,  he  would  be  a  reckless  prophet 
who,  knowing  her  history,  should  dare  predict  her  ulti- 
mate defeat. 

It  is  evident  that  whatever  Christianity  has  made 
itself  to  the  world,  and  whatever  it  has  achieved,  has 
been  due  to  the  co-operation  of  the  human  with  the 
divine.  Man  assuredly  cannot  be  excluded  from  its 
practical  life.  If  it  has  been  forced  out  of  the  cloister 
to  confront  the  actual  sufferings  of  the  race  ;  if  it  has 
been  freed  from  the  cabinets  of  kings  that  it  might 
breathe  a  divine  spirit  on  the  workshop  ;  and  if  it  has 
been  aroused  from  its  mystical  reveries  that  it  might 
descend    from    the    mount    of    Transfiguration    to    the 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  8$ 

grander  work  of  saving  children  and  men, — the  human 
instrument  has  been  indispensable  to  the  changes 
wrought.  And  from  the  past  we  may  gather  what  must 
always  be  our  right,  our  duty,  our  responsibility.  Chris- 
tianity,  as  it  appears  in  history,  is  frequently  seen  cor- 
recting itself,  revising  its  creeds,  translating  its  Scrip- 
tures, modifying  its  forms,  altering  its  methods,  and  in 
general  attempting  to  adapt  itself  to  the  varying  needs 
of  the  age ;  and  when  it  has  temporarily  resisted  inno- 
vations, when  it  has  tried  to  remain  rigid,  inflexible, 
antiquated,  it  has  speedily  lost  power,  and,  though  pro- 
testing against  the  human,  has  been  obliged  finally  to 
yield  to  its  molding  and  remodeling  touch.  Professor 
Herron,  in  one  of  his  lectures,  says  truly  :  *'  All  the 
instruments  and  observatories  are  not  part  of  the  mes- 
sage of  the  stars.  They  are  means  only  for  their  inter- 
pretation ;  and  they  would  be  cast  aside  in  a  moment  if 
they  did  not  serve  their  purpose."  ^  And  why  should 
theologies,  modes  of  worship,  implements  of-  spiritual 
husbandry,  and  systems  of  Sunday-school  instruction  be 
retained  when  they  have  outgrown  their  usefulness  and 
are  no  longer  fit  to  render  religion  operative,  or  to  en- 
able her  to  fulfill  her  mission  in  the  world  ?  What  our 
fathers  have  done,  why,  if  the  same  necessity  exists, 
should  not  we  do,  and  do  it  without  hesitancy  and  with- 
out apologies  .-*  The  human  element  has  been  incor- 
porated into  Christianity  for  just  such  purposes.  It 
has  no  place  there  at  all,  if  it  has  not  the  right  to  free 
religion  from  incrustations  that  impede  its  activity,  and 
to  supply  it  with  the  most  improved  weapons  for  its 
world-wide  conquests. 

^  "  Between  Ceesar  and  Jesus." 


86         CIIRISTIAMTV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

A  few  years  since,  about  1883,  the  Duomo  at  Florence 
was  the  center  of  universal  interest  and  agitation. 
Giotto's  glorious  Campanile,  the  magnificent  towers  of 
Bargello,  the  old  edifice  of  San  Miniato,  and  the  ragged 
walls  around  Fiesole,  had  all  quite  lost  their  attractions 
for  the  population  that  thronged  the  Piazza,  where  the 
great  church,  with  its  dome  transcending  in  size  that  of 
the  Pantheon  or  St.  Peter's,  defined  its  outlines  against 
the  transparent  blue  of  the  Italian  sky.  These  crowds 
collected  day  after  day,  not  for  the  purpose  of  concert- 
ing revolutionary  measures,  but  that  they  might  discuss 
the  to  them  momentous  question  whether  the  fagade 
of  the  church  should  be  finished  in  the  tricuspidal  or 
basilical  style.  All  of  the  citizens  took  sides  on  this 
grave  issue,  women  and  children  sharing  in  the  debate, 
the  privileged  ones  voting  for  the  one  style  or  the  other. 
It  seems  singular  that  a  matter  of  architecture  and 
decoration  should  be  decided  by  majorities ;  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  people  of  Florence  have 
been  educated  in  art,  and  that  their  intelligent  apprecia- 
tion of  the  pictures,  statuary,  and  venerable  frescoes 
which  beautify  their  city  eminently  qualify  them  to  ex- 
press a  judgment  and  direct  aesthetical  affairs.  It  is  of 
small  concern  to  us  how  they  voted  ;  but  the  right  they 
claimed  and  the  privilege  they  exercised  vividly  remind 
us  of  another  and  more  glorious  edifice  and  the  relation 
of  humanity  to  its  completion.  Christianity  is  a  temple 
still  unfinished.  It  has  grown  through  the  ages,  and  at 
every  stage  of  its  advance  we  can  detect  the  hand  of 
man.  What  it  shall  be  in  the  future,  he  will  determine. 
Within  certain  limits,  he  is  to  be,  as  he  has  been  in  the 
past,  its  architect   and   builder.     There  is  no  possible 


THE    DIVINE    AND    HUMAN  8/ 

escape  from  the  responsibility.  It  is  placed  on  man, 
because  religion  will  always  in  many  of  its  aspects  be 
an  expression  of  his  spirit,  his  culture,  his  aims.  He 
should,  therefore,  address  himself  seriously  to  his  task, 
nor  permit  an  official  few  who  would  usurp  his  preroga- 
tive to  rudely  condemn  his  active  solicitude  for  the  har- 
monious development  of  Christianity.  And  if  thought- 
ful and  devout  souls  shall  realize  that  on  them,  as  w^ell 
as  on  theologians  and  preachers,  rests  this  obligation, 
and  shall  prayerfully  and  reverently  seek  its  discharge, 
then  we  may  expect  the  dream  of  the  poet,  which  was 
also  the  vision  of  the  prophets,  to  be  fulfilled  : 

In  time  to  be 
Shall  holier  altars  rise  to  thee — 
Thy  church  our  broad  humanity. 
White  flowers  of  love  its  walls  shall  climb, 
Soft  bells  of  peace  shall  ring  its  chime, 
Its  days  shall  all  be  holy  time. 
A  sweeter  song  shall  then  be  heard. 
The  music  of  the  world's  accord 
Confessing  Christ,  the  Inward  Word. 


Ill 


THE    MEDIEVAL   AND    MODERN 


Lead,  kindly  Light,  amid  the  encirchng  gloom, 

Lead  thou  me  on  ; 
The  night  is  dark,  and  I  am  far  from  home, 

Lead  thou  me  on  ; 
Keep  thou  my  feet ;   I  do  not  ask  to  see 
The  distant  scene  ;  one  step  enough  for  me. 

— Newman. 


Ill 

THE    RENAISSANCE    OF    MEDIEVAL    ROMAN    CATHOLICISM 

The  original  Renaissance  marked,  on  its  intellectual 
and  literary  side,'  the  transition  from  that  period  of  his- 
tory known  as  the  Middle  Ages  to  that  which  is  termed 
Modern.  It  consisted  in  a  rebirth  of  the  classical  spirit 
and  in  a  temporary  burial  of  the  poetry  and  lengendary 
literature  of  the  Middle  Ages,  such  as  *<  Barlaam  and 
Josaphat,"  the  '' Nibelungenlied,''  the  "Book  of  Heroes," 
and  the  "  Holy  Grail,"  and  it  revived  a  love  of  Greek 
art,  as  well  as  of  Greek  letters.  The  place  of  its  nativ- 
ity was  within  the  charmed  circle  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
world,  whose  power  it  undermined  and  toward  whose 
disintegration  it  contributed.  Unquestionably  it  facili- 
tated and  almost  rendered  inevitable  the  Reformation. 
According  to  Heine : 

Leo  X.,  the  magnificent  Medici,  was  just  as  zealous  a  Protestant 
as  Luther  ;  and  as  in  Wittenberg  protest  was  offered  in  Latin  prose, 
so  in  Rome  the  protest  was  made  in  stone,  colors,  and  ottava 
rhymes.  For  do  not  the  vigorous  marble  statues  of  Michelangelo, 
Giulio  Romano's  laughing  nymph  faces,  and  the  life-intoxicated 
merriment  in  the  verses  of  Master  Ludovico,  offer  a  protesting  con- 
trast to  the  old,  gloomy,  withered  Catholicism  ?  The  painters  of 
Italy  combated  priestdom  more  effectively,  perhaps,  than  did  the 
Saxon  theologians.^ 

The  Renaissance  was  thus,  in  a  sense,  the  reawaken- 
ing of  paganism  and  its  victory  over  the  dominant  type 

^  "The  Romantic  School,"  p.  19. 

91 


92         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

of  Christianity.  •  It  plainly  announced  that  great  Pan 
was  not  dead,  and  bound  him  in  alliance  with  the  mighty 
si)iritual  movement  of  the  times,  which,  in  its  turn, 
while  using  him,  held  him  as  captive  and  would  not 
admit  him  to  companionship  on  terms  of  equality. 

But  the  Roman  Church  was  destined  to  be  avenged. 
The  reaction  was  long  in  coming,  but  it  came  at  last. 
Classicism  ran  its  weary  and  desolating  round,  and 
finally  introduced  the  glacial  era  in  literature  and  re- 
ligion. The  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  a 
frozen  world.  Its  ideals  were  sharp,  hard,  and  monoto- 
nous. Change  was  dreaded,  and  artificiality  was  regnant. 
While  there  was  some  sparkle,  glitter,  and  flash,  as  there 
is  in  the  Arctic  regions,  the  prevailing  temperature  was 
low,  and  men  who  ventured  on  reforms  were  like  some 
too  adventurous  whalers  caught  in  the  ice  floes — they 
were  chilled  to  death  by  the  bitter  atmosphere,  or  were 
crushed  in  the  floes  of  icy  criticism.  Occasionally  there 
was  heard  a  strident  protest,  resembling  the  grinding 
noise  of  conflicting  icebergs,  followed  only  by  painful 
silence.  Protestantism  also  slept  the  winter  sleep  be- 
neath the  benumbing  snows,  and  Catholicism  was  frost- 
bitten in  the  hyperborean  blasts.  From  this  glacial 
l^eriod  the  world  was  rescued,  not  alone  by  the  revivals 
of  evangelical  religion,  which  began  under  the  Wesleys, 
but  to  some  extent  by  a  remarkable  revival  of  medieval- 
ism. As  the  Reformation  and  classicism  combined  in 
delivering  humanity  from  the  senility  and  dotage  of 
medievalism,  so  now  medievalism  rises  from  the  dead  to 
aid  in  overthrowing  its  ancient  enemy. 

Among  the  leaders  of  this  movement  in  Germany, 
where  it  originated,  appear  the  brothers,  August  William 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  93 

and  Frederick  Schlegel,  and  it  came  to  be  known  in 
literature  as  romanticism.  This  school,  which  was  to 
have  such  tremendous  influence  on  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, was  explained  by  these  brothers  in  the  ''  Athe- 
naeum." ''  The  beginning  of  all  poetry,"  they  wrote,  "  is 
to  suspend  the  course  and  the  laws  of  rationally  think- 
ing reason,  and  to  transport  us  again  into  the  lovely  va- 
garies of  fancy  and  the  primitive  chaos  of  human 
nature.  .  .  The  free-will  of  the  poet  submits  to  no  law." 
Consequently  and  naturally,  the  best  models  and  illus- 
trations of  their  theory  were  found  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic productions  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Schlegels, 
Tieck,  Novalis,  and  others  who  sympathized  with  them, 
"  loved  the  realm  of  the  imagination  and  hated  the  ra- 
tionalism that  had  expelled  miracle  from  nature  and 
mystery  from  man,  making  the  universe  the  home  of  the 
prosaic  and  commonplace.  They  disliked  the  cold  classi- 
cism of  Goethe  and  even  the  warmer  humanism  of 
Schiller,  and  said,  "  Man  needs  an  imagination  to  inter- 
pret the  universe,  and  he  is  happy  only  as  he  has  a. uni- 
verse peopled  by  it  and  for  it."  ^  And,  continuing, 
Principal  Fairbairn  writes  :  '^  Admiration  for  the  past, 
though  it  was  a  past  that  was  a  pure  creature  of  the  im- 
agination, easily  became  belief  in  the  church  that  claimed 
it  as  its  own  ;  and  so  romanticism  in  men  like  Stolberg, 
Frederick  Schlegel,  and  Werner,  passed  by  natural  gra- 
dation into  Catholicism."  These  men  were  born  Protes- 
tants, as  \vere  Adam  Miiller,  Carove,  Schiitz,  and  Fritz 
Stolberg  before  they  abjured  reason  ;  and  when  they 
'' pressed  their  way  into  the  ancient  prisons  of  the  mind, 
from  which   their  fathers  so  valiantly  liberated    them- 

^  "Catholicism,  Roman  and  Anglican,"  p.  97. 


94         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

selves,  there  was  much  misgiving  felt  in  Germany." 
But  the  transition  was  perfectly  logical.  Imagination 
in  letters  easily  begets  imagination  in  faith,  and  the  Ger- 
many of  the  Middle  Ages  could  hardly  fail  to  have  a 
strong  hold  on  the  imagination.  It  was  then  glorioiis 
as  the  world-empire  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  was  then  rich 
in  the  poems  of  the  court  minnesingers,  and  was  then 
magnificent  in  the  splendors  of  its  Gothic  architecture. 
With  the  thought  of  political  sovereignty  were  associated 
the  deeds  of  heroism  ;  with  the  memory  of  legendary 
song,  the  idea  of  fancy  ;  and  with  mighty  cathedrals, 
the  miracles  of  saintly  men  and  women.  A  return  to 
such  an  epoch  for  inspiration  could  hardly  fail  to  quicken 
the  imagination,  and,  unless  local  causes  operated  as  a 
restraint,  would  inevitably  tend  in  the  direction  of  vis- 
ionary creations,  the  effect  of  which  would  be  felt,  and 
perhaps  supremely,  on  religion.  So  self-evident  is  this 
that  Max  Nordau,  writing  of  the  founders  of  this  school 
in  literature,  says  :  ''  That  which  enchanted  them  in  the 
idea  of  the  Middle  Ages  .  .  .  was  Catholicism  with  its 
belief  in  miracles  and  its  worship  of  saints.  *  Our  divine 
service,'  writes  H.  von  Kleist,  '  is  nothing  of  the  kind. 
It  appeals  only  to  cold  reason.  A  Catholic  feast  appeals 
profoundly  to  all  the  senses.'  The  obscure  symbolism 
of  Catholicism  ;  all  the  externals  of  its  priestly  motions  ; 
all  its  altar  service,  so  full  of  mystery ;  all  the  magnifi- 
cence of  its  vestments,  sacerdotal  vessels,  works  of  art ; 
the  overwhelming  effects  of  the  thunder  of  the  organ  ; 
the  fumes  of  incense ;  the  flashing  monstrance — all  these 
undoubtedly  stir  more  confused  and  ambiguous  adum- 
brations of    ideas  than  does    austere    Protestantism."  ^ 


"Degeneration,"  p.  73. 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  95 

Thus,  then,  as  all  students  of  these  times  agree,  the  re- 
volt from  classicism  produced  romanticism  ;  and  roman- 
ticism, in  Germany  and  elsewhere,  led,  directly  or  in- 
directly, to  the  renaissance  of  what  the  original  Renais- 
sance mostly  seriously  assailed — medieval  Roman  Ca- 
tholicism. 

In  France,  however,  the  movement  did  not  set  in 
this  direction.  Here  we  meet  the  usual  exception  to  all 
rules.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  French  people 
had,  for  a  long  while,  been  disillusioned  on  the  subject 
of  the  papacy.  While  in  Germany  the  massive  Protes- 
tantism of  the  land  had  hidden  from  view  the  harsh  and 
objectionable  features  of  the  Roman  Church,  in  France 
they  had  been  accentuated  by  many  years  of  ecclesias- 
tical misrule  and  flagrant  abuse.  Here,  therefore,  local 
circumstances,  which  need  not  be  analyzed,  diverted 
romanticism  from  religious  channels.  There  was  enough 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  apart  from  religious  mysteries, 
mummeries,  and  miracles,  to  excite  a  people  like  the 
French,  wild  with  the  frenzy  of  the  Revolution. 

That  was  the  period  of  great  crimes  and  great  passions,  of 
marble  palaces,  of  dresses  glittering  with  gold,  and  of  intoxicating 
revels  ;  a  period  in  which  the  aesthetic  prevailed  over  the  useful, 
and  the  fantastic  over  the  rational,  and  when  crime  itself  was  beau- 
tiful, because  assassination  was  accomplished  with  a  chased  and 
damascened  poniard,  and  the  poison  was  handed  in  goblets 
wrought  by  Benvenuto  Cellini.^ 

Not  singular,  surely,  that  such  an  era  should  fascinate 
the  men  who  had  grown  weary  of  the  monotony  of  cold 
and  mediocre  classicism  ;  and  that,  enamored  of  its  strik- 
ing and  weird  features,  they  should  give  to  the  world 

*  Max  Nordau,  "Degeneration,"  p.  74. 


g6         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  heroes  of  Victor  Hugo,  Alexander  Dumas,  Theophile 
Gautier,  and  Alfred  de  Musset. 

In  England,  romanticism  in  its  course  followed  more 
closely  the  German  original  ;  and  while  it  displayed  its 
spirit  in  the  wonderful  volumes  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  it 
seemed  mainly  to  seek,  as  it  ultimately  found,  its  chief 
expression  in  Christian  thought  and  life.  There,  as  in 
Germany,  it  made  for  the  renaissance  of  medieval  Roman 
Catholicism,  and  the  particular  movement  by  which  its 
development  was  determined  has  passed  into  history 
under  the  name  of  ''The  Oxford  Movement." 

But  this  movement  did  not  originate  in  a  deliberate 
purpose  to  substitute  Romanism  for  Anglicanism,  or  in 
any  plot  to  restore  papal  supremacy  in  England.  What- 
ever it  may  have  led  to,  nothing  of  this  kind  was  con- 
templated at  the  beginning  ;  and  when,  subsequently,  its 
drift  was  discovered  to  be  in  this  direction,  many  of  its 
early  friends  withdrew  from  it  their  sympathy  and  active 
support.  It  was  originally  called  forth  by  the  increasing 
tide  of  liberalism,  which  was  running  swift  and  high  in 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  and  which,  it  was 
supposed,  jeopardized  the  English  Church,  both  as  an 
ecclesiastical  system  and  as  a  State  institution.  To  stem 
this  dangerous  current,  and  to  avert  what  many  persons 
believed  would  be  a  national  and  a  religious  disaster, 
was  apparently  the  immediate  motive  which  determined 
a  distinguished  group  of  Oxford  men  to  begin  an  agita- 
tion whose  far-reaching  consequences  they  themselves 
could  not  have  anticipated.  And  it  must  be  admitted 
that,  from  their  standpoint,  the  peril  which  threatened 
was  neither  imaginary  nor  trivial  ;  for  it  was  not  one 
wholly  external  to  the  church  and  acting  upon  her  from 


THE  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  97 

without,  but  was  one  that  had  a  stronghold  within  and 
was  already  operating  outwardly  from  the  center  to  the 
circumference.  A  significant  passage  in  the  ''Apologia  ' 
throws  a  strong  and  reliable  light  on  the  situation,  and 
is  worthy  of  careful  consideration.  Mr.  Newman  writes  : 
**  The  Reform  agitation  was  going  on  around  me.  The 
Whigs  had  come  into  power ;  Lord  Gray  had  told  the 
bishops  to  set  their  house  in  order,  and  some  of  the 
prelates  had  been  insulted  and  threatened  in  the  streets 
of  London.  The  vital  question  was,  How  were  we  to 
keep  the  church  from  being  liberalized }  There  was 
such  apathy  on  the  subject  in  some  quarters,  such  im- 
becile alarm  in  others  ;  the  true  principles  of  church- 
manship  seemed  so  radically  decayed,  and  there  was  such 
distraction  in  the  councils  of  the  clergy.  .  .  With  the 
Establishment  thus  divided  and  threatened,  thus  igno- 
rant of  its  true  strength,  I  compared  that  fresh,  vigorous 
power  of  which  I  was  reading  in  the  first  centuries.  .  .  I 
saw  that  Reformation  principles  were  powerless  to  res- 
cue her.  As  to  leaving  her,  the  thought  never  crossed 
my  imagination  ;  still  I  always  kept  before  me  that  there 
was  something  greater  than  the  Established  Church, 
and  that  was  the  Church  Catholic  and  Apostolic,  set  up 
from  the  beginning,  of  which  she  was  but  the  local  pres- 
ence and  organ.  She  was  nothing  unless  she  was  this. 
She  must  be  dealt  with  strongly  or  she  would  be  lost. 
There  was  need  of  a  second  Reformation."^ 

To  his  account  may  be  added  some  other  particulars, 
which  justified  his  apprehensions.  These  were  the 
days  when  Sir  Robert  Peel,  then  member  for  Oxford, 
had  been  compelled  to  introduce  his  bill  for  the  eman- 

^  '■'■Apologia  Fro  Vita  Sua,"  p.  93- 
G 


98         CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

cipation  of  Roman  Catholics.  These  were  the  days 
when  Bentham's  utilitarianism  was  entering  into  alliance 
with  science,  and  was  subjecting  Christianity  to  an  al- 
together new  test.  These  were  the  days  of  Holland 
House,  of  Lord  Brougham's  society  for  the  *'  Diffusion 
of  Useful  Knowledge,"  and  of  the  formation  of  the 
British  Association.  These  were  the  days  when  Cole- 
ridge's transcendentalism  was  displacing  Hume's  em- 
piricism, and  was  enlisting  the  speculative  reason  in 
the  service  of  revealed  religion.  These  were  the  days 
when  Goethe's  ideal  of  culture  challenged  the  ideal  of 
Christianity ;  when  Byron  repudiated  moral  conven- 
tionalities in  the  name  of  freedom  ;  when  Shelley  thrilled 
the  world  with  storm  songs  against  every  form  of  oppres- 
sion ;  and  when  Wordsworth  was  bringing  the  soul  of 
man  into  closer  fellowship  with  nature.  And  these 
were  the  times  when  political  revolutions  were  startling 
France  ;  when  social  reforms  were  beginning  to  be 
agitated  in  almost  every  capital  of  Europe,  when  senti- 
ments regarded  as  ahen  to  the  genius  of  the  English 
Church  had  been  planted  in  her  bosom  by  her  own 
children  ;  and  when  the  non-prelatical  sects  had  the 
temerity  to  suggest  that  the  requirement  of  subscription 
to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  from  young  men  at  matricu- 
lation should  be  abolished  by  the  orthodox  University 
of  Oxford.^ 

Indeed,  it  must  be  conceded  that  opinions  were  in 
circulation  among  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  English 
Church,  and  which  had  originated  among  her  own 
leaders,  which  went  far  toward  placing  her  on  the  same 
level  with  the  much  despised  Dissenters.     These  may 

Dean  Church,  "  Oxford  Movement,"  Chap.  VIII. 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  99 

be  traced  to  the  early  Oriel  school,  representative  of 
liberal  theological  teachings,  with  which  the  names  of 
Whately,  Arnold,  Hampden,  Milman,  Chevalier  Bunsen, 
and  Blanco  White  were  intimately  associated.  Whately 
was  rather  destructive  in  his  methods.  Many  current 
beliefs  he  swept  away,  and  among  them  the  notion  that 
any  priesthood  exists  under  the  gospel  other  than  the 
common  priesthood  of  all  Christians.  He  rejected 
verbal  inspiration,  did  not  rest  the  observance  of  the 
Lord's  Day  on  the  Fourth  Commandment,  and  could 
not  be  brought  to  subscribe  to  Anglo-Catholic  theology 
any  more  than  he  could  countenance  the  assumptions 
of  German  rationalism.^  Arnold  was  even  more  radical 
and  revolutionary.  He  argued  that  Christianity,  whether 
or  not  acceptable  as  a  philosophy,  was  not  something 
dependent  on  organizations  and  sects,  but  was  a  life- 
blood  permeating  society,  and  influencing  colleges,  lit- 
erature, and  politics.     As  Dean  Church  testifies  : 

Arnold  divided  the  wodd  into  Christians  and  non-Christians. 
Christians  were  all  who  professed  to  believe  in  Christ  as  a  Divine 
Person  and  to  worship  him  ;  and  the  brotherhood,  the  "societas'' 
of  Christians,  was  all  that  was  meant  by  the  "church"  in  the 
New  Testament.  It  mattered,  of  course,  to  the  conscience  of 
each  Christian  what  he  had  made  up  his  mind  to  believe,  but  to 
no  one  else.  Church  organization  was,  according  to  circum- 
stances, partly  inevitable  or  expedient,  partly  mischievous,  but  in 
no  case  of  divine  authority.  Teaching,  ministering  the  word,  was 
a  thing  of  divine  appointment,  but  not  so  the  mode  of  exercising 
it,  either  as  to  persons,  forms,  or  methods.^ 

Rather  rank  and  extreme  opinions  these,  for  a  mem- 

1  Whately,  "  Cautions  for  the  Times  "  and  "  Historic  Doubts." 
2  "Oxford  Movement,"  p.  6. 


lOO      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ber  of  a  prelatical  establishment  to  hold,  and  not  so  widely 
divergent  from  those  published  by  Coleridge  in  1830  as 
may  be  supposed.  The  philosopher,  in  his  discussion 
of  the  subject,  discriminates  between  the  Christian 
church  and  a  national  church. 

The  former  is  spiritual  and  cadiolic  ;  the  latter,  institutional 
and  local.  The  former  is  opposed  to  the  "  world  "  ;  the  latter  is 
an  estate  of  the  realm.  The  former  has  nothing  to  do  with  States 
and  kingdoms.  It  is  in  this  respect  identical  with  the  spiritual 
and  invisible  church  known  only  to  the  Father  of  Spirits,  and  the 
compensating  counterpoise  of  all  that  is  in  the  world.  It  is,  in 
short,  the  divine  aggregate  of  what  is  really  divine  in  all  Christian 
communities  and  more  or  less  ideally  represented  in  every  true 
church.^ 

These  Coleridgian  ideas  quickly  diffused  themselves 
and  permeated  the  general  intellectual  atmosphere  ;  but 
to  say  the  least  of  them,  they  were  hardly  conducive  to 
a  high  type  of  Anglicanism.  Nor  were  the  teachings 
of  Dr.  Hampden,  whose  appointment  as  Regius  Profes- 
sor of  Divinity,  made  by  Lord  Melbourne,  created  in- 
tense feeling  at  Oxford,  calculated  to  inspire  the  world 
with  reverent  respect  for  the  authority  of  churches  and 
councils.  It  seemed,  therefore,  as  though  the  establish- 
ment was  being  betrayed  by  her  own  sons,  and  that 
they  were  aiding  her  enemies  beyond  her  pale  by  the 
advocacy  of  sentiments  irreconcilable  with  her  claims 
as,  in  an  exceptional  and  exclusive  sense,  the  Church 
Catholic  and  apostolic. 

From  the  general  character  of  these  teachings,  as 
well  as  from  the  trend  of  the  times,  we  can,  at  a  glance, 

^  "On  Constitution  of  Church  and  State,"  "Religious  Thought  in 
Britain  in  the  Nineteenth  Century." 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  lOI 

make  out  the  real  animus  and  aims  of  the  Oxford  Move- 
ment. It  v^as  evidently  intended  to  be  and  in  fact  could 
be  nothing  less  than  a  protest  against  liberalism  in  poli- 
tics, in  theology,  and  in  church  order.  It  was  a  distinct 
and  solemn  repudiation  of  the  spirit  of  the  age ;  and  in 
rendering  the  haughty  rejection  of  progress  consistent 
and  effective,  it  became  necessary  to  advance  an  ade- 
quate organizing  principle,  and  such  a  principle  was 
found  underlying  the  Catholicism  of  medieval  times. 

That  this  was  its  primary  motive  and  method  hardly 
calls  for  proof  ;  and  yet  a  few  excerpts  from  the  writ- 
ings of  its  leaders  will  avert  any  possible  suspicion  of 
misrepresentation.  A  crisis  was  reached  in  1833. 
''  Ten  Irish  bishoprics  had  been  suppressed,  and  church 
people  were  told  to  be  thankful  that  things  were  no 
worse."  In  consequence  of  this  and  of  other  Erastian 
proceedings,  Keble  preached  his  famous  assize  sermon 
at  St.  Mary's  on  ''  National  Apostasy."  This  discourse 
had  a  quickening  effect  on  the  friends  who  were  mourn- 
ing over  the  condition  of  the  English  Church.  They 
combined  more  thoroughly  ;  they  arranged  for  petitions 
against  innovations  ;  and  they  planned  the  issue  of  tracts, 
which  gave  rise  to  the  name  Tractarian  as  applied  to 
the  Oxford  Movement  at  its  initial  stage.  These  tracts 
created  a  sensation.  They  were  short,  sharp,  almost 
shrill,  like  bugle  calls  to  battle  ;  and  we  gain  an  idea  of 
their  purpose,  confirming  what  I  have  already  said,  from 
the  confession  of  Newman,  who  thus  writes  of  the  spirit 
that  animated  him  in  their  distribution  and  incidentally 
of  the  work  they  were  expected  to  accomplish  :  ''  I  did 
not  care  whether  my  visits  were  made  to  High  Church 
or   Low   Church  ;   I  wished   to   make  a   strong  pull   in 


102      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

union  with  all  those  who  were  opposed  to  the  principles 
of  liberalism,  whoever  they  might  be."  They  were 
therefore  designed  to  combat  the  progressive  spirit  of 
the  age.  But  what  means  did  they  employ  for  the 
furtherance  of  this  end  .?  The  keynote  of  Tract  i  was 
''Apostolical  Succession";  and  this,  with  some  other 
kindred  doctrines,  is  referred  to  in  the  introduction, 
printed  when  the  first  series  of  tracts  was  issued  as  a 
volume,  and  these  references  enable  us  to  judge  on 
what  their  authors  relied  for  success.  They  would  have 
a  child  taught  that  "  the  Sacraments,  not  preaching,  are 
the  sources  of  divine  grace  ;  that  the  apostolic  ministry 
has  a  virtue  in  it  which  went  out  over  the  whole  church, 
and  that  fellowship  with  it  was  a  gift  and  a  privilege." 
But  whatever  doubt  may  have  existed  in  the  public 
mind  relative  to  the  significance  of  this  movement  was 
set  at  rest  by  the  appearance  of  Tract  90,  and  its  con- 
tents substantiate  what  we  have  thus  far  maintained. 
Its  object  was  to  show  that  the  Thirty-nine  Articles 
were  not  irreconcilable  with  Catholic  teaching,  and  that 
it  was  doubtful,  even,  whether  they  intentionally  and 
directly  contradicted  the  definitions  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  Moreover,  it  argued  that,  though  Rome  might 
be  wrong,  she  might  not  be  as  wrong  as  some  persons 
alleged  ;  and  that  the  Articles,  while  condemning  error, 
might  even  be  harmonized  with  Roman  authoritative 
language.^  The  publication  of  this  document  led  to 
aggravated  discussion  and  dissension.  Oxford  and 
other  centers  of  thought  and  influence  were  more  than 
agitated  ;  they  were  convulsed.  The  men  who  could 
best  judge  the  drift  of  the  Tract  cried  out,  ''Popery," 

1  Church,  "Oxford  Movement,"  Chap.  XIV. 


THE  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  IO3 

and  understood  it  as  favoring  a  movement  toward  Rome. 
They  declared  that  such  a  current  had  already  com- 
menced, although  they  could  not  then  determine  its 
strength  or  its  swiftness.  On  this  point,  there  was  no 
doubt ;  and  this  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  best  quali- 
fied critics,  taken  together  with  the  tendencies  the  Ox- 
ford Movement  was  avowedly  inaugurated  to  antagonize, 
establishes  beyond  reasonable  question  that  the  move- 
ment was  essentially  a  renaissance  of  medieval  Catholi- 
cism, with  an  inevitable,  though  at  the  beginning  an 
unconscious,  trend  in  the  direction  of  papal  supremacy. 
After  the  circulation  of  Tract  90,  the  renaissance  de- 
veloped itself  with  more  clearness  and  definiteness.  It 
moved  along  two  different  and  yet  converging  lines,  and 
these  lines  were  distinctly  marked  in  the  careers  of  two 
notable  men.  Dr.  Newman  and  Dr.  Pusey.  But  before 
tracing  its  unfolding  in  their  lives,  John  Keble  and 
Richard  Hurrell  Froude,  who  were  intimately  related  to 
the  events  taking  place  at  Oxford,  are  entitled  at  least 
to  brief  mention,  as  they  seem  in  their  convictions  to 
have  anticipated,  as  w^ell  as  by  their  efforts  to  have  pro- 
moted, the  Catholic  renaissance.  The  authorship  of 
Tractarianism,  Newman  ascribes  to  the  poet  Keble, 
because  of  the  personal  influence  he  had  exerted  on  its 
leaders.  He  was  a  man  of  high  and  saintly  character, 
imbued  with  the  spirit  of  romanticism  as  well  as  of 
piety,  and  in  1827  had  moved  thousands  of  English 
hearts  by  the  new  music  of  the  ''Christian  Year." 
Newman  writes  :  ^ 

The  two  main  intellectual  truths  it  brought  home  to  me  were 
...  in  a  large  sense  of  the  word  the  Sacramental  System  ;  that 
is,  the  doctrine  that  material  phenomena  are  both  the  types  and 


I04      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  instruments  of  real  things  unseen — a  doctrine  which  embraces 
not  only  what  Anglicans  as  well  as  Catholics  believe  about  Sacra- 
ments, properly  so  called,  but  likewise  the  article  of  "  the  Com- 
munion of  the  Saints"  and  "the  Mysteries  of  the  Faith." 

Undoubtedly,  the  work  was  a  refreshment  to  many  ; 
and  multitudes  who  have  not  too  nicely  inquired  into  its 
doctrine  have  been  strengthened  in  their  faith  by  its 
sweetness  and  tenderness,  and  by  its  positiveness  and 
devoutness.  Hurrell  Froude  was  a  pupil  of  Keble's, 
and  shared  his  sentiments,  though  not  sharing  with  him 
his  poetic  temperament.  Though  in  various  respects  a 
very  different  man,  the  romantic  element  was  not  lack- 
ing in  his  composition.  He  was  the  Bayard  and  Prince 
Rupert  of  Tractarianism.  Strong  in  his  convictions, 
vivid  in  imagination,  quick-sighted  and  brave,  he  was 
more  than  ready  to  venture  a  lance  in  conflict  with  the 
defenders  of  hated  liberalism.  Of  him  James  Mozley 
writes  after  this  fashion :  "  Froude  is  growing  stronger 
and  stronger  in  his  sentiments  every  day,  and  cuts  about 
him  on  all  sides.  It  is  extremely  fine  to  hear  him  talk." 
But,  "  I  would  not  set  down  anything  that  Froude  says 
for  his  deliberate  opinion,  for  he  really  hates  the  present 
state  of  things  so  excessively  that  any  change  would  be 
a  relief  to  him."  He  was  particularly  hard  on  the  Re- 
formers, and  he  did  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the  Roman 
Church  was  nearer  right  in  principle  and  practice  than 
England  had  been  taught  to  believe.  But  he  never 
abandoned  the  English  Church.  What  he  might  have 
done  had  he  been  spared,  no  one  can  tell  ;  but,  always 
infirm  in  health,  he  died  in  1836.^  Of  him  Newman 
writes  in  the  most  appreciative  terms  : 

^Froude's  "  Remains  "  ;  J.  B.  Mozley's  "  Letters." 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  IO5 

He  professed  openly  his  admiration  of  the  Church  of  Rome  and 
his  hatred  of  the  Reformers.  He  dehghted  in  the  notion  of  a 
hierarchical  system  of  sacerdotal  power  and  of  full  ecclesiastical 
liberty  (independent  of  secular  control).  He  felt  scorn  of  the 
maxim,  "The  Bible  and  the  Bible  only  is  the  religion  of  the 
Protestants"  ;  and  he  gloried  in  accepting  tradition  as  a  main  in- 
strument of  religious  teaching.  He  had  a  high,  severe  idea  ot 
the  intrinsic  excellence  of  virginity  ;  and  he  considered  the 
blessed  Virgin  its  great  pattern.  .  .  He  embraced  the  principle  of 
penance  and  mortification.  He  had  a  deep  devotion  to  the  Real 
Presence,  in  which  he  had  a  firm  faith.  He  was  powerfully  drawn 
to  the  Medieval  Church,  but  not  to  the  Primitive.  .  .  He  taught 
me  to  look  with  admiration  toward  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  in 
the  same  degree  to  dislike  the  Reformation. 

From  these  testimonies,  it  becomes  evident  that  these 
celebrated  men,  Keble  and  Froude,  held  in  solution  the 
elementary  principles  of  the  renaissance,  and  that  largely 
through  their  personal  influence  they  were  finally  crys- 
tallized into  the  definite  forms  it  assumed,  of  which 
Newman  and  Pusey  were  the  most  pronounced  types 
and  the  most  distinguished  exponents. 

John  Henry  Newman  was  born  in  the  city  of  London, 
February  21,  1801,  and  descended  from  Dutch  and 
Huguenot  ancestry.  He  says  that  he  was  brought  up 
from  a  child  to  take  delight  in  reading  the  Bible.  Also 
he  records  his  deep  interest  in  the  "  Arabian  Nights." 
"  My  imagination,"  he  writes,  "  ran  on  unknown  influ- 
ences, or  magical  powers  and  talismans.  .  .  I  thought 
life  might  be  a  dream,  or  I  an  angel,  and  all  this  world 
a  deception,  my  fellow-angels  by  a  playful  device  con- 
cealing themselves  from  me,  and  deceiving  me  with  the 
semblance  of  a  material  world.  I  was  very  superstitious, 
and  for  some  months  previous  to  my  conversion  (when 


I06      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

I  was  fifteen)  used  constantly  to  cross  myself  on  going 
into  the  dark."  Here  we  have  romanticism,  mysticism, 
and  medievalism  in  the  bud.  Given  such  a  nature,  and 
the  actual  conditions  under  which  it  was  to  develop,  the 
character  of  the  final  product  could  not  be  doubtful  ; 
for  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  life  of  Newman  does 
not  furnish  an  example  of  inexplicable  transitions  or  of 
abrupt  intellectual  changes.  It  is  simply  an  unfolding, 
an  orderly  advance  from  the  fabulous  stories  of  the 
"  Arabian  Nights  "  to  the  fictions  and  illusions  of  medie- 
val Romanism.  What,  later  on,  was  termed  his  conver- 
sion to  the  papacy  was  not  a  conversion  ;  neither  was  it 
a  perversion.  It  was  simply  a  culmination,  an  inevitable 
climax. 

When  he  was  fifteen,  he  was  subject  to  deep  religious 
experiences,  and  mentions  the  Rev,  Walter  Mayers,  of 
Pembroke  College,  as  the  instrument  of  his  spiritual 
enlargement.  He  was  early  interested,  through  Milner's 
''  Church  History,"  in  St.  Augustine,  St.  Ambrose,  and 
the  other  Fathers  ;  and  from  the  reading  of  Newton  on 
the  "  Prophecies,"  became  convinced  that  the  pope  was 
antichrist.  Of  his  education  in  detail  it  is  not  necessary 
that  I  speak.  It  is  enough  for  our  purpose  to  say  that 
he  matriculated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  December 
14,  18 16,  when  he  was  yet  two  months  under  sixteen 
years  of  age.  In  181 8  he  won  a  Trinity  scholarship; 
obtained  his  b.  a.  in  1820;  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
Oriel  in  1822;  and  on  June  13,  1824,  was  ordained 
deacon  and  was  appointed  curate  of  St.  Clement's. 
His  associations  and  his  studies  subsequent  to  this 
period  were  all  of  a  nature  to  strengthen  his  faith  in 
baptismal  regeneration,  apostolical    succession,  and   in 


THE  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  10/ 

the  authoritative  worth  of  tradition.  In  1829,  he  appears 
in  vigorous  opposition  to  Peel's  re-election  ;  and  in  1830, 
he  was  ''  turned  out  of  the  secretaryship  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  at  Oxford,"  because  of  a  pamphlet 
in  which  he  had  assailed  its  constitution  ;  and  his  an- 
tagonism to  liberal  princij^les  was  further  marked  by  his 
final  break  with  the  adherents  of  Reformation  views. 
He  had,  in  1828,  succeeded  Hawkins  in  the  famous 
pulpit  of  St.  Mary's,  where  he  delivered  a  series  of  after- 
noon sermons,  which  revealed  the  trend  of  his  own 
thought  and  powerfully  reinforced  the  appeals  of  the 
Tractarian  leaders.  Throughout  this  period  he  was 
profoundly  disturbed  over  the  plight  of  the  English 
Church.  He  was  perplexed  and  humiliated.  His  hymn, 
"  Lead,  kindly  Light,"  penned  when  traveling  with 
Froude  in  the  south  of  Europe  for  Froude's  health, 
gives  some  idea  of  his  inner  commotion,  and  the  lines 
from  the  ^^  Lyra  Apostolica,''  some  conception  of  the 
drift  of  his  mind  and  of  his  misgivings  : 

How  shall  I  name  thee,  Light  of  the  Wide  West, 

Or  heinous  error-seat  ?  .   .    . 
Oh,  that  thy  creed  were  sound  ! 

For  thou  dost  soothe  the  heart,  thou  Church  of  Rome, 
By  thy  unwearied  watch  and  varied  round 

Of  service,  in  thy  Saviour's  holy  home. 

At  this  time  he  began  to  feel  that  he  had  a  mission. 
His  servant  one  day  found  him  weeping,  and  asked 
what  ailed  him,  and  he  answered,  "  I  have  a  work  to  do 
in  England."  In  this  vague  and  mystic  condition  he 
arrived  at  his  mother's  house  at  Iffley,  June  9,  1833, 
and  was  soon  after  bearing  an  active  part  in  the  Tracta- 
rian movement.      Concerning  his   services  in  this  con- 


I08      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

nection,  Froude  wrote  :  ''  Compared  with  him,"  all  the 
other  contributors  were  *'  but  as  ciphers  and  he  the  in- 
dicating number."  As  Dean  Church  has  pointed  out, 
in  1839  ^^^  very  grave  question  rose,  doubtless  called 
out  by  much  contained  in  thetracts  themselves,  whether 
the  Church  of  England,  after  all,  was  really  a  church. 
Newman,  while  investigating  the  Monophysite  contro- 
versy, experienced  this  year  for  the  first  time  grave 
doubts  as  to  the  tenableness  of  Anglicanism  :  *'  I  had 
seen  the  shadow  of  a  hand  on  the  wall.  He  who  has 
seen  a  ghost  cannot  be  as  if  he  had  never  seen  it.  The 
heavens  had  opened  and  closed  again."  These  are  his 
own  words,  to  which  he  adds  :  "  The  thought  for  the 
moment  had  been,  the  Church  of  Rome  will  be  found 
right  after  all ;  and  then  it  had  vanished."  He  had 
indeed  seen  the  hand  on  the  wall — an  ominous  allusion, 
however,  considering  where  it  first  oc-Gurs  in  history  ; 
but  the  consummation  was  not  as  yet  clearly  within  sight. 
It  was  somewhat  hastened  by  an  article  from  the  pen 
of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  in  which  the  words  of  Augustine 
against  the  Donatists  were  quoted,  ^^  Secitrns  judicat  or- 
bis  tcrraruDi  "  ^ — a  saying  that  suggested  a  simpler  rule 
of  judgment  on  ecclesiastical  questions  than  that  of  an- 
tiquity, and  one  that  apparently  favored  the  assumptions 
of  Rome.  But,  doubtless,  the  general  condemnation  of 
Tract  90  had  more  to  do  with  opening  his  eyes  to  his 
own  position  and  to  his  growing  disaffection  from  Angli- 
can views.  <*  From  the  end  of  1841,"  he  writes,  "  I  was 
on  my  deathbed  as  regards  my  membership  with  the 
Anglican  Church,  though  at  the  time  I  became  aware 
of  it  only  by  degrees."     In   1842,  not  as  yet  having  re- 

1  "The  united  world  makes  no  mistake  in  judgment." 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  IO9 

signed  St.  Mary's,  he  withdrew  to  Littlemorc,  accom- 
panied by  a  few  young  adherents,  and  his  house  ac- 
quired the  name  of  the  Littlemore  Monastery.  "  Here 
he  passed  the  three  years  of  painful  anxiety  and  suspense 
which  preceded  his  final  decision  to  join  the  Church  of 
Rome,  leading  a  life  of  prayer  and  fasting,  and  of  mon- 
astic seclusion."  ^  Newman  traces  for  us  his  mental 
processes  at  this  critical  juncture:  ''On  the  one  hand, 
I  gradually  came  to  see  that  the  Anglican  Church  was 
formally  in  the  w^rong ;  on  the  other,  that  the  Church 
of  Rome  was  formally  in  the  right  ;  then  that  no  valid 
reason  could  be  assigned  for  continuing  in  the  Anglican, 
and  again  that  no  vaUd  objections  could  be  taken  to 
joining  the  Roman."  So  his  conclusion  was  :  ''  There 
is  no  help  for  it ;  we  must  either  give  up  the  belief  in 
the  church  as  a  divine  institution  altogether,  or  we  must 
recognize  it  in  that  communion  of  which  the  pope  is  the 
head  ;  we  must  take  things  as  they  are  ;  to  believe  in  a 
church  is  to  believe  in  the  pope."  Such  was  the  char- 
acter of  his  reasoning.  In  1843  he  published  a  retrac- 
tion of  what  he  had  penned  in  former  years  against  the 
papacy.  A  few  months  previously  he  had  left  St.  Mary's 
for  good  and  all.  In  1845  appeared  his  essay  on 
"  Development,"  justifying  his  own  theological  position 
and  resting  the  claims  of  the  papacy,  not  on  the  charac- 
ter of  primitive  Christianity,  but  on  the  historical  and 
divine  law  of  progress  as  he  understood  it.  Immediately 
after,  on  October  9,  he  was  received  into  the  church  at 
his  own  Littlemore  abode  by  Father  Dominic,  the  Pas- 
sionist  ;  and  during  the  same  year,  he  w^as  ordained  a 
priest   at    Rome.      Of    his   preferments   and  honors   as 

1  "Dictionary  of  National  Biography." 


I  10      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

a  member  of  the  hierarchy,  it  is  unnecessary  that  we 
write.  We  may,  however,  note,  in  completing  this 
sketch,  that  in  1879  he  was  made  Cardinal  by  Pope  Leo 
XIII.,  by  the  title  of  St.  George  in  Velabro,  and  that 
he  died  at  Edgbaston,  on  August  11,  1890. 

Various  estimates  of  Cardinal  Newman's  character 
and  work  have  been  given  to  the  public  by  those  who 
knew  him  personally  and  who  were  better  qualified  to 
pronounce  judgment  than  we  are,  who  have  to  depend  on 
the  too  partial  eulogies  of  his  friends  or  the  too  violent 
criticisms  of  his  enemies  ;  but  whether  he  was  really  as 
great  as  his  admirers  claim,  or  as  subtle  and  evasive  as 
his  detractors  insinuate,  of  his  power  and  remarkable 
influence  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Many  cultured  and 
brilliant  men  followed  him  into  the  Roman  communion. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  about  three  thousand  persons 
of  education  and  distinction  have  been  led  by  his  exam- 
ple to  abandon  the  Church  of  England  ;  and  probably 
the  number  given  is  rather  lower  than  the  facts  warrant. 
"The  Guardian"  stated  on  his  death  that  the  Church  of 
England,  as  we  have  it  in  our  day,  is  largely  what  he 
made  it.  But  whether  this  is  so  or  not,  and  whether  it 
can  ever  be  determined  exactly  how  many  Anglicans 
were  moved  by  his  action  to  seek  membership  in  the 
Roman  hierarchy,  one  thing  is  certain,  his  so-called 
conversion  and  the  conversion  of  his  associates  gave  to 
Roman  Catholicism  more  than  a  new  lease  of  life  in 
Britain ;  it  lifted  it  up  to  rank  and  honor,  and,  in  no 
small  degree,  to  public  confidence. 

On  this  change,  the  ''  Rambler  "  wrote  in  185 1,  using, 
among  other  expressions  of  gratification,  the  following 
language : 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  I  I  I 

From  the  moment  that  the  Oxford  tracts  commenced,  the 
Catholic  Church  assumed  a  position  in  this  country  which  she  had 
never  before  attained  since  the  schism  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
With  what  a  depth  of  indescribable  horror  of  Catholicism  the  whole 
mind  of  England  was  formerly  saturated  few  can  comprehend  who 
^have  not  experienced  it.  No  one  read  Catholic  books  ;  no  one 
entered  Catholic  churches  ;  no  one  ever  saw  Catholic  priests  ;  feu- 
people  even  knew  that  there  were  Catholic  bishops  resident  in 
England.  See  now  the  change  that  has  come  over  the  English 
people  as  a  nation.  Crowds  attend  the  services  in  the  Catholic 
churches  .  .  .  and  a  stillness  most  profound  pays  strange  hom- 
age to  the  elevation  of  the  most  Holy  Sacrament. 

This  is  not  an  overstatement  from  the  overwrought  imag- 
ination of  a  Roman  journalist.  He  might  have  gone  fur- 
ther. He  might  have  chronicled  the  return  of  some  of 
the  noblest  families  in  England  to  the  faith  of  their  sires  ; 
and  had  he  written  now,  he  might  graphically  have  de- 
scribed the  solicitude  of  some  prominent  Protestants  in 
Parliament  to  vote  public  money  for  the  establishment 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  university  ;  and  he  might  have 
pointed  with  warrantable  exultation  to  similar  favor  now 
extended  to  Romanism  in  the  United  States.  Its  mag- 
nificent ecclesiastical  edifices ;  its  richly  endowed  bene- 
factions, educational  and  philanthropic,  which  may  be 
found  almost  everywhere  in  the  great  republic ;  and  its 
social  standing  and  political  influence,  all  indicate  that 
the  renaissance  of  medieval  Catholicism  has  extended 
to  the  New  World,  and  flourishes  there  as  luxuriously 
as  in  the  Old.  I  am  not  here  attempting  to  fix  its  boun- 
daries. I  am  not  comparing  here  its  progress  with  the 
advance  of  Protestantism  and  the  Protestant  principle. 
Neither  am  I,  in  this  connection,  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  alleged  existence  of  signs  of  decay  and  reaction. 


112      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

These  things  will  appeal  to  us  farther  on.  But  here  I 
am  merely  centering  attention  on  the  reality  and  vigor 
of  this  wonderful  revival,  on  its  strength  and  splendor, 
and  on  the  fact  that  in  Newman's  own  career  we  have 
an  exposition  of  its  character  and  an  explanation  of  its 
origin. 

There  is,  however,  as  I  have  already  intimated,  an- 
other and  a  not  dissimilar  line  along  which  the  renais- 
sance moved.  Two  streams  flow  from  one  spring  ;  but 
though  they  are  differently  channeled,  their  waters  are 
strikingly  alike.  This  second  form  of  the  one  remark- 
able resuscitation  had  for  its  exemplar  and  leader  Ed- 
ward Bouverie  Pusey,  who  was  born  at  Pusey  House, 
Berkshire,  August  22,  1800.  His  family  were  descend- 
ants from  Walloon  stock,  native  to  the  Low  Countries, 
whose  religion  was  that  of  the  French  Reformed  Con- 
fession ;  but  his  parents  were  Church  people  and  Tories 
of  high  degree.  His  mother's  influence  in  molding  his 
character  he  always  gratefully  acknowledged.  During 
his  college  career  he  evinced  the  utmost  diligence,  and 
carried  off  some  first-class  honors.  The  miscarriage  of 
an  early  love 'affair,,  and  the  influence  of  Lord  Byron's 
poetry,  deepened  his  morbid  feelings  and  tinged  with 
gloom  his  student  years.  After  he  was  elected,  in  1822, 
Fellow  of  Oriel  and  had  obtained  the  Chancellor's  medal 
for  Latin,  he  applied  himself  to  the  mastery  of  German. 
P^or  the  sake  of  perfecting  himself  in  the  language  and 
acquainting  himself  with  German  theology,  he  spent 
some  two  years  in  that  country.  There  he  met  Eich- 
horn,Tholuck,  Schleiermacher,  Neander,  Freytag,  LUcke, 
Sack;  attended  lectures  at  Gottingen,  Berlin,  Bonn  ;  and 
came  into  touch  with  the  romantic  school,  both  in  litera- 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  II3 

ture  and  religion.  On  his  return  from  the  continent, 
his  first  publication  was  an  earnest  defense  of  theological 
movements  in  Germany  against  the  assaults  of  Rev.  H. 
J.  Rose,  one  of  the  Tractarians,  in  which  he  refers  habit- 
ually to  the  reformed  communions  as  churches,  and 
speaks  enthusiastically  of  the  ''  immortal  heroes,  the 
mighty  agents  of  the  Reformation."  About  this  time, 
1827,  therefore,  he  was  infected  with  the  current  liber- 
alism; but  after  his  marriage,  in  1828,  with  Maria  Ray- 
mond-Barker, who  was  an  ardent  admirer  of  High 
Church  principles,  he  gradually  inclined  more  and  more 
toward  Newman  and  his  friends.  Captivated  by  the 
idea  of  a  great,  visible,  organized  church,  and  doubtless 
affected  by  the  perils  then  besetting  the  English  Estab- 
lishment, he  finally  took  sides  with  the  Tractarian  party. 
Of  the  value  of  his  accession  to  the  cause,  Newman 
writes  :  ''  He  at  once  gave  to  us  a  position  and  a  name. 
Without  him,  we  should  have  had  no  chance,  especially 
at  the  early  date  of  1834,  of  making  any  serious  resist- 
ance to  the  Liberal  aggression.  But  Dr.  Pusey  was  a 
Professor  and  Canon  of  Christ  Church  ;  he  had  a  vast 
influence  in  consequence  of  his  deep  religious  serious- 
ness, the  munificence  of  his  charities,  his  professorship, 
his  family  connections,  and  his  easy  relations  with  Uni- 
versity authorities."  He  contributed  a  tract  on  "  Fast- 
ing," and  then  an  elaborate  treatise  on  "Baptism,"  in 
which  the  most  extreme  views  of  baptismal  regeneration 
were  advocated.  This  prepared  the  way  for  his  teach- 
ing concerning  confession  and  absolution.  A  sermon 
preached  in  1843  on  "The  Holy  Eucharist,"  which  dar- 
ingly approached  to  the  Romish  doctrine,  led  the  author- 
ities to  forbid  him  the  use  of  the  university  pulpit  for 

H 


114      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

two  years  ;  but  almost  from  this  date  he  began  to  hear 
confessions,  and  the  practice  began  to  prevail  as  part  of 
the  Anglican  system. 

When  Newman  entered  the  Roman  Church,  it  was 
generally  supposed  that  Pusey  would  follow ;  but  in  this 
the  world  was  disappointed.  He  remained  behind  and 
did  what  he  could  to  conform  the  English  Church  to  the 
medieval  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  Roman.  There- 
fore, with  the  withdrawal  of  Newman,  Pusey  was  left  as 
sole  head  of  the  Anglo-Catholic  medieval  renaissance. 
He  took  ''his  position  as  the  great  spiritual  teacher  and 
preacher  of  the  patristic  revival."  To  what  extent  he 
carried  his  vocation  may  be  inferred  from  a  letter  he 
wrote  his  friend  Hope,  afterward  known  as  Hope-Scott, 
of  Abbotsford,  inquiring  into  the  character  of  penances 
suitable  for  persons  of  delicate  frames  :  *'  I  see  in  a 
spiritual  writer  that  even  for  such  corporal  severities  are 
not  safe  to  be  neglected,  but  so  many  of  them  are  un- 
safe. I  suspect  the  *  discipline '  to  be  one  of  the  safest, 
and  with  internal  humiliation  the  best.  .  .  Could  you 
procure  and  send  me  one  by  B.  ?  What  was  described 
to  me  was  of  a  very  sacred  character — five  cords,  each 
with  five  knots,  in  memory  of  the  five  wounds  of  our 
Lord." 

This  inquiry  may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  the 
general  character  of  the  renaissance  within  the  English 
Establishment.  To  all  intents  and  purposes,  it  is  sim- 
ply a  counterpart  of  what  constitutes  the  distinguishing 
features  of  Roman  Catholicism.  Certainly  in  this  way 
Cardinal  Vaughan  has  interpreted  it,  and  his  words  will 
fully  sustain  the  conclusion  I  have  reached.  He  ex- 
presses himself  forcibly  in  these  terms  : 


THE  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  II5 

The  very  Establishment  which  was  set  up  in  rivalry  to  the 
church,  with  a  royal  supremacy — this  very  Establishment  has 
changed  its  temper  and  attitude.  Ministers  and  people  are  busily 
engaged  in  ignoring  or  denouncing  those  very  Articles  which  were 
drawn  up  to  be  their  eternal  protest  against  the  old  religion.  The 
sacramental  power  of  orders,  the  need  of  jurisdiction,  the  Real 
Presence,  the  daily  sacrifice,  auricular  confession,  prayers  and  offices 
for  the  dead,  belief  in  purgatory,  the  invocation  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  the  Saints,  religious  vows,  and  the  institution  of  monks 
and  nuns,  .  .  all  these  are  now  openly  proclaimed  from  a 
thousand  pulpits  in  the  Establishment,  and  as  heartily  embraced 
by  as  many  crowded  congregations. 

That  is,  in  England  there  is  now  taking  place  what  Lord 
Falkland  described  as  occurring  in  the  same  land  some 
two  hundred  years  ago,  when  certain  bishops  tried  to 
see  how  papistical  they  could  be  without  bringing  in 
popery,  and  how  far  they  could  succeed  in  developing  a 
blind  dependence  of  the  people  upon  the  clergy.^ 

While  from  the  lives  of  Newman  and  Pusey  we  have 
gained  a  fairly  accurate  conception  of  the  two  branches 
of  the  religious  renaissance,  it  yet  remains  for  us  to  ob- 
serve the  significant  unfolding  of  the  aims  and  purposes 
of  the  Anglo-Catholic  branch  as  disclosed  in  its  societies, 
confraternities,  and  secret  orders.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  bodies — perhaps  the  most  important  if 
numbers,  piety,  rank,  and  intelligence  are  accorded  their 
due  place — is  the  English  Church  Union,  of  which  Lord 
Halifax  is  president.  It  contains  in  its  membership 
twenty-nine  bishops  and  over  thirty-five  thousand  men, 
of  whom  at  least  four  thousand  two  hundred  are  in  the 
ministry.  Among  other  striking  documents  it  has  is- 
sued an  appeal  for  union  with  Rome  ;  and  at  one  of  its 

iLiddon,  "Life  of  Pusey."     Purcell,  "Life  of  Cardinal  Manning." 


Il6      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

very  latest  gatherings  it  has  formulated  a  strung  pro- 
test against  the  right  of  the  crown  or  of  parliament 
"to  determine  the  doctrine,  the  discipline,  and  the  cere- 
monial of  the  Church  of  England,"  and  declares  that 
"  we  are  not  prepared  to  barter  the  principles  of  the 
church  for  the  sake  either  of  establishment  or  endow- 
ment." It  further  appeals  to  "the  rulers  of  the  church 
not  to  use  their  spiritual  power  to  curtail  the  glory  and 
splendor  of  the  services  of  God's  house  by  imposing 
on  the  church  a  narrow  and  disputed  interpretation  of 
the  rubrics."  From  these  excerpts  we  gather  that  the 
"  Union  "  is  more  disposed  to  submit  to  the  authority  of 
the  pope  than  to  that  of  the  "  Lords  temporal,"  and 
that  it  is  not  improbable  the  future  may  be  startled  by 
these  unprotestant  protesters  joining  with  the  dissen- 
ters in  demanding  disestablishment.  This,  at  first,  may 
seem  incredible  ;  but  when  it  is  remembered  that  this 
would  be  in  accordance  with  the  drift  of  the  age  and 
with  the  growing  spirit  of  independence  in  many  religious 
communities,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  it  may  be  brought 
about,  even  at  an  early  day  in  the  twentieth  century. 

Another  of  these  societies  entitled  to  notice  is  called 
"The  Confraternity  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,"  num- 
bering upward  of  fifteen  thousand  members,  of  whom 
one  thousand  six  hundred  are  in  holy  orders.  This 
organization  seeks  to  nullify  that  special  repugnance  to 
the  Mass  as  expressed  in  the  Thirty-first  Article  of  the 
English  Confession,  "  The  Sacrifices  of  Masses,  in 
which  it  was  commonly  said  that  the  priest  did  offer 
Christ  for  the  quick  and  the  dead,  to  have  remission  of 
pain  and  guilt,  were  blasphemous  fables  and  dangerous 
conceits."      liverything  possible  is  being  done  by  the 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN 


17 


confraternity  to  educate  the  people  in  the  contrary  opin- 
ion, and  to  this  end  grants  are  made  to  poor  parislies  of 
altar  vessels,  chasuble,  alb,  tunicle,  stole,  and  other 
accessories,  the  use  of  which  has  been  by  law  declared 
illegal.  It  encourages  prayers  for  the  dead,  and  now 
holds  a  "■  solemn  requiem,"  which  is,  in  fact,  an  annual 
mass  for  the  dead.  These  and  other  practices  widen 
the  breach  between  it  and  the  simpler  and  truer  faith 
of  the  old  English  Church.  Of  this.  Bishop  Samuel 
Wilberforce  was  convinced,  and  consequently  thus  ad- 
dressed its  superior  general : 

It  is  sure  to  stir  up  a  vast  amount  of  prejudice  from  its  sin- 
gularly un-English  and  Popish  tone.  .  .  I  view  with  the  utmost 
jealousy  any  tendency  to  ally  that  reviving  earnestness  to  the  un- 
realities and  morbid  development  of  modern  Romanism.  You 
may  do  much  one  way  or  the  other.  I  entreat  you  to  consider 
the  matter  for  yourself,  and  as  bishop  I  exhort  you  to  use  no 
attempts  to  spread  the  Confraternity  amongst  the  clergy  and  re- 
ligious people  of  my  diocese. 

In  addition  to  these  bodies,  there  are  orders  of  sister- 
hoods, orders  of  brotherhoods,  the  "  Order  of  Corporate 
Reunion,"  the  ''  Society  of  the  Holy  Cross,"  the  "  Se- 
cret Order  of  the  Holy  Redeemer,"  and  even  a  ''  Purga- 
torial Order,"  whose  names  are  sufficiently  illuminative 
to  save  us  from  the  labor  of  explanation.  With  all  of 
these  societies  at  work,  and  all  working  in  the  same 
direction,  it  will  not  surprise  any  one  to  learn  that 
there  are  upward  of  one  thousand  two  hundred  churches 
in  England  where  the  medieval  vestments  are  used, 
where  incense  and  altar  lights  are  employed,  and  where 
the  ritual  is  not  easily  distinguishable  from  that  usually 
followed  in   Roman  Catholic  churches.     These  innova- 


Il8       CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH     CENTURY 

tions  or  restorations  have  led  to  no  small  amount  of 
debate  and  to  some  entreaties  on  the  part  of  bishops  to 
their  clergy,  which  sound  strange  to  those  who  under- 
stand the  theory  of  priesthood  to  imply  that  it  is  the 
right  of  the  superior  to  command  and  the  duty  of  the 
inferior  clergy  to  obey. 

In  recording  these  facts,  I  have,  as  far  as  possible, 
avoided  the  appearance  of  criticism  ;  for  I  have  been 
anxious  merely  to  give  an  idea  of  a  movement,  which, 
in  many  respects,  is  the  most  notable  of  the  century, 
and  to  do  so  candidly  and  dispassionately. 

And  then,  what  has  been  its  outcome  ?  What  inter- 
ests has  it  touched  and  modified  ?  What  transforma- 
tions has  it  wrought  ?  What  are  its  results  ?  What, 
its  total  value  ?  These  questions  arise  unbidden.  Every 
thoughtful  mind  that  considers  this  renaissance  cannot 
refrain  from  demanding  more  than  the  mere  outlines  of 
its  character. 

It  is  manifest  that  a  most  remarkable  change  has 
taken  place  in  the  "tenets,  practices,  tastes,"  and  tem- 
per of  the  Anglican  communion.  A  French  author, 
treating  in  a  thoroughly  admirable  spirit  this  move- 
ment, by  a  very  vivid  contrast  enables  his  readers  at  a 
glance  to  perceive  the  nature  of  this  transition.  He 
furnishes  two  aspects  of  the  Establishment,  one  of  the 
church  as  it  was,  and  a  companion  picture  of  the  church 
as  it  is.  Let  us  bring  these  two  portraits  together  ; 
they  are  worthy  of  our  attention.      Here  is  the  first  : 

In  vain  did  AngHcanism,  therein  differing  from  most  Protestant 
communions,  retain  the  external  decoration  of  an  episcopate  : 
none  the  less  for  that  had  it  lost  the  Catholic  conception  of  the 
church,    as  a  divine  society  founded  by  Christ,    governed  by  a 


THE  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  II9 

hierarchy  tracing  back  its  descent  to  him,  separate  from  and  in- 
dependent of  all  governments,  having  her  own  life  in  herself,  with 
the  right  to  rule  herself  and  define  her  doctrine.  The  Established 
Church  now  appeared  as  no  more  than  a  creation  of  the  State, 
entrusted  by  the  State,  under  its  own  supremacy,  with  the  depart- 
ment of  religion  and  morals  ;  with  her  bishops  appointed  by  the 
sovereign,  her  laws  and  even  her  dogmas  settled  by  Parliament, 
her  intestine  disputes  decided  by  the  civil  tribunals.  Nothing 
resembling  our  clergy,  with  their  celibacy,  their  ideal  of  renuncia- 
tion, of  asceticism,  of  supernatural  mysticism  ;  nothing  resem- 
bling our  priests,  marked  and  separated  from  the  world  by  the 
priestly  seal,  invested  with  the  ministry  of  sacrifice  and  absolu- 
tion. The  clergyman  would  have  been  astonished,  and  almost 
shocked,  if  one  had  called  him  "priest"  ;  married,  busied  with 
his  family,  living  the  life  of  every  one  else,  be  it  as  scholar  or  as 
squire,  he  looked  upon  himself  as  invested  with  a  social  function, 
which  seemed  to  him  not  essentially  different  from  any  other,  but 
which  merely  enjoined  upon  him  a  behavior  somewhat  more 
strict. 

To  this  we  may  add  another  descriptive  paragraph  : 

Inside  and  outside,  everything  "in  the  Established  Church" 
had  a  thoroughly  Protestant  character.  Further,  if  at  that  period 
one  had  asked  an  Anglican,  cleric  or  layman,  educated  or  igno- 
rant, w'hether  he  were  Protestant  or  Catholic,  he  would  have 
thought  the  questioner  was  joking.  Protestant  he  was,  Protestant 
he  was  proud  to  be.  Doubtless  he  well  believed  himself  to  have 
a  Protestantism  all  his  own,  which,  like  all  English  wares,  he 
thought  superior  to  the  wares  of  the  same  name  in  vogue  upon 
the  continent  ;  but  the  difference  was  merely  one  of  quality,  not 
of  kind.  The  mere  word  Catholic  conjured  up  before  his  eyes  a 
conglomeration  of  superstitions,  from  which  it  was  the  very  glory 
of  his  forefathers  to  have  disengaged  themselves  three  centuries 
before,  and  with  w^hich  he  could  not  possibly  suppose  himself  to 
have  anything  in  common. 

Now,  in  contrast,  we  have  this  account : 


120      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Repeat  that  question  ;  to-day  ask  the  Anglicans,  of  whom  I 
speak,  whether  they  are  Cathohcs  or  Protestants  :  they  will  repu- 
diate Protestantism  with  indignation,  they  will  deem  it  an  injus- 
tice and  an  injury  to  be  called  Protestants  ;  they  will  vindicate 
their  right  to  call  themselves  Catholics,  and  will  plume  themselves 
upon  having  none  but  Catholic  beliefs  and  practices.  Far  from 
being,  like  their  predecessors,  content  to  have  a  religion  wholly 
English — after  the  manner  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  who  could 
scarcely  conceive  of  Jehovah  except  as  belonging  to  themselves 
exclusively — they  feel  that  religious  truth  cannot  be  so  insular  as 
all  that  ;  they  strive  to  persuade  themselves  that,  despite  the 
schism  of  the  sixteenth  century,  in  which  they  would  fain  see  but 
an  unfortunate  and  transitory  mishap,  they  remain  still  a  branch 
of  the  Catholic  Church  ;  they  assert  that,  notwithstanding  every- 
thing, there  subsists  a  kind  of  immaterial  unity.  They  show 
themselves  far  from  proud  of  the  alleged  reformers,  whom  they 
encounter  at  the  very  cradle  of  their  church.  Sometimes  they 
even  openly  confess  their  crime,  and,  in  any  case,  appear  above 
all  things  preoccupied  with  tracing  their  origin  to  an  earlier  source, 
more  anxious  to  connect  themselves  with  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
and  with  St.  Augustine  of  Canterbury,  than  with  Henry  VIII.  and 
Cranmer.^ 

But,  on  this  subject,  the  most  trustworthy  testimony 
has  just  been  published  from  the  pen  of  eminent  church- 
men themselves,  whose  names  are  a  sufficient  guaranty 
of  their  abihty  and  candor.  The  volume  they  have  is- 
sued is  called  "  Church  and  Faith,"  and  its  contents 
have  been  supplied  by  Dr.  Wace,  Dean  Farrar,  Dr. 
Wright,  Professor  Moule,  Rev.  R.  E.  Bartlett,  Principal 
Drury,  Canon  Meyrick,  Chancellor  Smith,  Montague 
Barlow,  Sir  Richard  Temple,  E.  H.  Blakeney,  I.  T. 
Tomlinson,  with  an  introduction  from   the  pen  of   the 

*  '■'■La  Renaissance  Catholiqjie  en  Angleterre  an  XI Xe.  Steele.  Pre- 
miere Pariie :  Nervman  et  le  Mouveinent  d' Oxford.'"  Par  Paul 
Thureau-Dangin,  de  V Acadetnie  Franfaise. 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  12  1 

Lord  Bishop  of  Hereford.  Here  we  have,  as  it  were, 
an  authoritative  statement  of  the  revolution  that  has 
been  wrought  within  the  church,  and  a  clear  idea  of  the 
line  of  cleavage  that  divides  the  ritualists  from  their 
brethren.      The  bishop  says  that  the  ritualists  are  aiming 

To  wipe  out  the  Protestant  character  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  to  revive  under  the  vague  and  consequently  misleading  name 
of  Catholic,  the  church  of  the  darker  ages,  with  its  rule  of  sacer- 
dotal authority  over  the  individual  conscience,  its  encouragement 
of  the  confessional,  its  doctrine  of  the  mass,  its  baseless  dogmas 
about  the  state  of  the  dead,  and  its  imposing,  symbolic,  and  spec- 
tacular worship. 

But  it  is  argued  that,  while  these  representatives  of 
what  has  taken  place  may  be  accepted  as  authentic,  it 
must  not  be  overlooked  that  what  these  churchmen 
criticise  has  tended,  on  the  whole,  to  the  advantage  of 
Christendom  : 

The  unbroken  continuity  of  the  English  Church,  the  existence 
of  a  divinely  constituted  ecclesiastical  polity,  the  importance  of 
the  Eucharist  as  the  central  act  of  Christian  worship,  the  appeal 
of  religion  to  the  senses  and  emotions — these  have  been  the  in- 
centives to  a  religious  enthusiasm  which  strikingly  contrasts  with 
the  deadness  of  the  Reformed  bodies  abroad.^ 

Of  the  enthusiasm,  there  is  no  doubt ;  and  it  has  not 
exhausted  itself,  either  on  ceremonials  and  rubrics,  on 
church  restorations  and  antiquities,  but  has  expressed 
itself  in  philanthropies,  benefactions,  college  settle- 
ments, and  Christian  socialism. 

These  latter  endeavors,  however,  in  my  opinion,  are 
due  rather  to  the  initiative  of  the  Broad  Church  school. 


Jennings,  "  Manual  Church  Hist.,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  227. 


122      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

represented  by  Kingsley  and  Maurice,  than  to  the 
humanitarian  ism  of  the  High  ;  confirmation  of  which 
we  seem  to  have  in  the  fact  that  Nonconformists  in 
England  and  elsewhere  have  been  just  as  active,  self- 
sacrificing,  and  diligent  in  good  works  as  their  con- 
temporaries of  the  ^Establishment.  When  we  remember 
that,  where  sacerdotal  systems  have  prevailed  most' 
absolutely,  the  social  condition  of  the  masses  has  been 
most  shameful,  it  follows  logically  that  the  new  solici- 
tude on  their  behalf  cannot  be  due  to  a  revival  of  sacer- 
dotalism, especially  as  it  prevails  when  sacerdotalism  is  re- 
jected, but  to  the  ZtvV-^^/j-/,  which,  in  this  instance,  I  may 
be  excused  for  identifying  in  a  very  real  if  not  complete 
sense  with  the  gracious  influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Without  detracting  in  the  least  from  the  part  taken  by 
the  Anglo-Catholics  in  the  work  being  done  for  social 
amelioration,  we  are  unable  to  give  them  credit  exclu- 
sively or  primarily  for  its  origin  or  vigor.  They  have 
accomplished  much,  but  not  everything.  They  have 
unquestionably  outstripped  their  predecessors  in  the 
church  ;  but  they  have  not  excelled  their  contemporaries 
who  dissent  from  the  church. 

It  is  also  clear  that  the  Episcopal  hierarchy  in  Eng- 
land has  gained  in  the  love  and  confidence  of  the  nation. 
Whether  this  is  to  be  attributed  to  its  increasing  sensu- 
ous splendor,  or  to  its  enlarging  sympathy  with  the 
temporal  needs  of  the  people,  is  not  easy  to  determine. 
Probably  both  tendencies  ought  to  be  recognized,  though 
I  apprehend  that  hungry  and  neglected  multitudes  will 
be  more  readily  moved  by  the  latter  than  by  the  former. 
And  it  is  to  be  noted  that  as  the  EngHsh  Church  has 
grown  in  favor,  the  Roman  Catholic  worship  has  become 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  123 

more  and  more  tolerable.  This  is  very  likely  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  secession  to  that  fellowship  of  many 
genuine  Englishmen,  thus  toning  down  the  foreign 
aspect  of  Romanism,  and  by  the  practical  endeavors  of 
ecclesiastics,  like  those  of  Cardinal  Manning  on  behalf  of 
the  dock-yard  strikers,  to  abate  the  sufferings  of  the 
poor.  In  other  words,  it  is  apparent  that  the  renais- 
sance of  medieval  Catholicism  has  acquired  much  of  its 
popularity  from  its  benevolent  labors.  It  has  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  espoused  the  cause  of  the  poor  and 
wretched,  and,  in  so  doing,  it  is  entitled  to  the  world's 
gratitude  and  admiration. 

Principal  Fairbairn,  in  discussing  the  changes  effected 
by  the  Anglo-Catholic  movement,  says  that,  *'  its  ideal 
of  worship  has  modified  the  practice  of  all  the  churches, 
even  of  those  most  hostile  to  its  ideal  of  religion."  He 
adds,  further  : 

The  religious  spirit  of  England  is,  in  all  its  sections  and  varie- 
ties, sweeter  to-day  than  it  was  forty  years  ago,  more  open  to  the 
ministries  of  art  and  the  graciousness  of  order,  possessed  of  a 
larger  sense  of  the  communion  of  saints,  the  kinship  and  con- 
tinuity of  the  Christian  society  of  all  ages.  Even  Scotland  has 
been  touched  with  a  strange  softness,  Presbyterian  worship  has 
grown  less  bald,  organs  and  liturgies  have  found  a  home  in  the 
land  and  church  of  Knox.^ 

All  of  which  is  undoubtedly  true,  and  yet  there  are 
some  shadows  to  this  attractive  picture.  There  is  an 
uneasy  feeling  in  Scotland  that  the  liturgical  business  is 
being  overdone,  and  that  the  Church  of  the  Covenant  has 
not  been  improved  spiritually  by  the  spectacular  features 
which  have  of  late  been  added  to  her  worship.     Open- 

^  "  Catholicism,  Roman  and  Anglican,"  p.  73. 


124      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ness  to  art  is  all  very  well,  and  beauty  and  music  are 
in  themselves  desirable;  but  when  there  is  an  attempted 
imitation  of  Anglo-Catholics  in  Nonconformist  meeting- 
houses, and  when  officiating  Protestant  ministers  in 
cathedral  tones  speak  of  the  "  Holy  Eucharist  "  and 
vaguely  talk  of  ''  rites  magical  to  sanctify,"  they  are 
perhaps  unintentionally  but  really  betraying  the  cause 
of  the  Reformation  into  the  hands  of  its  enemies. 
Moreover,  while  it  would  be  ungracious  to  say  that 
English  religious  life,  on  the  whole,  has  not  grown 
sweeter,  it  must  be  admitted  there  is  much  room  for  it 
to  become  sweeter  still.  The  rancorous  discussions 
within  the  church  herself,  between  the  Romanizing  and 
the  anti-Romanizing  factions,  and  the  acerbity  of  news- 
paper disputants,  and  the  uproarious  and  violent  demon- 
strations in  sacred  edifices  against  candles  and  incense 
in  divine  service,  leave  much  in  the  way  of  sweetness  to 
be  desired.  While  there  has  been  a  rapprochement  in 
the  way  of  gentle  courtesies  between  the  priests  of 
Anglicanism  and  those  of  Catholicism,  there  has  been 
scarcely  any  diminution  in  narrow  hostility  on  the  part 
of  High  Churchmen  toward  Dissenters.  There  are 
many  notable  exceptions  to  this  proscriptive  spirit 
among  the  higher  and  lower  clergy  of  the  establish- 
ment ;  but  they  are  rarely  found  within  the  circle  of 
those  who  are  tainted  with  Romanism.  To  them  all  Dis- 
senters are  outside  barbarians.  They  assume  a  patron- 
izing air  when  they  allude  to  them,  and  are  arrogantly 
supercilious  when  they  meet  them,  and  denounce  as 
flagrantly  iniquitous  the  parliamentary  laws  which  con- 
cede to  the  children  of  Dissent  the  rights  of  burial 
in  the  cemeteries  of  the  nation.     Their  contemptuous 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  125 

attitude  toward  the  Nonconformist  bodies,  whose  loyalty 
to  conscience  and  devotion  to  the  nation  made  Britain 
strong  and  great,  is  illustrated  by  the  depreciatory  allu- 
sion to  their  standing  from  the  pen  of  a  modern  church 
historian. 

This  ecclesiastical  annalist  thus  represents  them  : 

The  chief  factors  of  the  sects  are  the  lower-middle  classes,  nor, 
save  in  the  case  of  new  phases  of  pietistic  enthusiasm,  have  they 
found  much  favor  with  men  of  education.  An  exception  to  this 
rule  is  furnished  by  the  Unitarian  body,  which  has  long  main- 
tained a  high  intellectual  character. 

So,  then,  the  "  rule  is  "  that  Nonconformists  are  un- 
educated and  are  not  favored  by  educated  people  ;  and 
yet,  strange  to  say,  all  over  the  world,  including  Eng- 
land, they  have  been  foremost  in  laboring  and  sacrific- 
ing for  the  enlightenment  of  mankind.  What  does  this 
reverend  traducer  mean  ?  Does  he  mean  that  the  aver- 
age intelligence  of  the  chapel  is  not  so  high  as  that  of 
the  church  ?  If  he  does,  it  is  purely  an  assumption, 
born  of  his  clerical  prejudices.  Does  he  desire  to  be 
understood  as  intimating  that  the  pulpits  of  Noncon- 
formity are  not  adorned  by  men  of  equal  ability  and 
scholarship  with  those  who  serve  the  Establishment  ? 
If  he  does,  then  he  is  not  acquainted  with  the  facts,  or 
he  is  disposed  to  ignore  them.  Perhaps  he  does  not 
know  that  the  Christian  world  extends  beyond  the 
British  Islands,  and  that,  in  the  United  States,  Episco- 
pacy constitutes  a  very  meagre  portion  of  its  Christianity. 
•While  presumably  that  honored  Episcopacy  has  done 
its  part  in  the  great  work  of  education,  the  non-prelati- 
cal  bodies  have,  as  they  ought  to  have  done,  contributed 


126      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

immeasurably  more  than  it  could  have  contributed  toward 
the  founding  of  schools  and  the  increase  of  colleges.  Nor 
is  it  in  the  spirit  of  disparagement  of  others  that  I  add 
that  '*  the  sects,"  as  they  are  superciliously  termed,  have 
given  as  many  brilliant  teachers  and  preachers  to  the 
world  as  their  more  pretentious  rivals.  Nor  is  this 
without  parallel  in  England  itself.  Bishop  Watson,  in 
a  letter  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1783,  writes 
concerning  Dissenting  preachers,  "  I  cannot  look  upon 
them  as  inferior  to  the  clergy  of  the  Establishment, 
either  in  learning  or  morals."  And  another  unpreju- 
diced churchman  wrote  :  '^  As  a  member  and  minister 
of  the  universal  church  of  Christ,  I  dare  not  to  be  so 
ungrateful  to  the  Dissenting  body  as  to  forget  their 
past  and  present  services  to  the  general  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity. Many  of  their  community  have  shone,  in  their 
respective  eras,  as  the  light  and  glory  of  the  Catholic 
Church."  The  author  from  whom  I  am  quoting  reminds 
us  that  Bishop  Warburton,  one  of  the  greatest  masters 
of  learning,  attended  no  university  ;  and  that  Arch- 
bishop Seeker  and  Bishop  Butler  were  the  offspring  of 
Dissenters  and  were  educated  by  a  Nonconformist  min- 
ister. If  these  gracious  things  can  be  said  of  Dissenters 
in  the  past,  they  can  be  said  with  even  more  truth  of 
them  to-day.  Many  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  letters 
in  England  during  this  century,  and  many  of  its  most 
brilliant  theologians,  were  not  born  in  the  Establishment, 
did  not  believe  in  the  Establishment,  and  did  not  minis- 
ter at  its  altars  ;  and  it  is  the  weakness  of  the  extreme 
Anglo-Catholic  party,  that  it  is  apparently  unwilling  to 
recognize  greatness  and  scholarship  beyond  its  own 
circle.      Nay,   it   seems   to  have  intensified   intolerance 


THE    MEDIEVAL   AND    MODERN  12^ 

and  religious  provincialism  ;  and  in  this  manner  it  has 
disfigured  much  that  is  refreshing  and  inspiring  in  its 
ideals.  If  we  judge  by  the  tone  and  spirit  of  the  two 
historians  we  have  cited,  the  English  Church,  just  to 
the  extent  that  it  has  yielded  to  the  Romanizing  factors 
in  its  midst,  has  declined  in  kindly  charity  and  in  that 
sweetness  which  ought  to  predominate  in  the  relations 
and  intercourse  of  all  creeds  and  communions.^ 

Nor  is  this  the  only  evil  tendency  traceable  to  the 
Oxford  Movement.  It  is  largely  responsible  for  the 
prevalence  of  sensationalism  in  the  methods  of  religious 
work  and  the  forms  of  religious  address.  Nothing  is 
more  common  in  our  day.  than  to  hear  ritualistic  clergy- 
men speak,  with  something  like  sneering  compassion  in 
their  voice,  of  preachers  who  choose  startling  themes  to 
draw  a  congregation  ;  of  evangelists  who  evoke  the  power 
of  music  and  do  not  disdain  occasionally  to  sanctify  a 
concert-hall  melody  ;  and  of  Salvation  Armies,  who  with 
drum  and  trumpet  and  cheap  scarlet  uniform  attempt  to 
awaken  the  sleeping  world.  All  these  things,  to  the 
High  Anglo-Catholic,  are  very  meretricious,  very  theat- 
rical, very  vulgar,  and  very  unworthy  the  cause  of  relig- 
ion. We  are  disposed  to  agree  with  him.  Better  far  if 
Christianity  could  dispense  with  such  aids.  Far  better 
would  it  be  if  sanctified  learning  and  tempered  enthusi- 
asm, if  dignity  and  zeal,  and  if  '^sweet  reasonableness" 
and  passionate  love  could  always  be  combined  in  the 
preacher  and  in  his  message  ;  and  far  better  would  it  be 
if  blemishes  on  revival  efforts  were  removed,  and  the 
same  results  in  the  slums  of  our  cities  could  be  reached 

*  Jennings,  "Manual  of  Church   Hist.,"  Vol.   II.,  p.  229;    Timson, 
"Church  History,"  p.  437. 


128      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

without  the  employment  of  an  agency  mto  which  the 
grotesque  element  enters  so  conspicuously.  But  who 
are  they  who  criticise  ?  Is  there  nothing  spectacular  and 
sensational  in  their  system  ?  Nay,  is  it  not  of  its  very  es- 
sence theatrical  ?  These  priests,  with  garments  belong- 
ing to  other  ages  and  having  their  origin  in  other  cults  ; 
these  services,  in  which  mysterious  genuflections  and 
cabalistic  signs  appeal  to  superstitious  instincts ;  these 
processionings,  with  their  incense,  chanting,  and  span- 
gled, painted  pageantry — what  are  these  things  if  not  the 
very  melodrama  of  religion  ?  There  is  the  same  appeal 
to  the  eye  and  ear,  the  same  illusion  and  phantasmago- 
ria, the  endeavor  to  charm  and  thrill  that  enters  so  large- 
ly into  the  mise  en  schie  of  the  stage ;  and  when  stately 
ecclesiastics,  staid  professors  of  theology,  and  university 
men  attach  so  much  importance  to  every  detail  of  such 
histrionic  and  dramaturgical  worship,  is  it  not  readily 
explicable  why  some  preachers  and  reformers  adopt,  ac- 
cording to  their  poor  resources,  methods  so  strained  and 
unnatural  as  at  times  to  border  on  burlesque  ?  They 
are  simply  doing,  within  their  sphere  and  in  harmony 
with  their  limitations,  what  dignitaries  of  the  church 
are  doing  with  greater  lavishness  and  display.  Had 
there  not  been  so  remarkable  a  revival  of  the  sensuous 
and  scenic  among  those  who  assume  to  be  exceptionally 
cultured  and  to  be  pre-eminently  qualified  to  be  religious 
leaders,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  there  would  have 
been  anything  of  that  sensationalism  which  has  found 
its  way  into  some  of  the  activities  of  Protestantism. 
Without  the  mummeries  of  extreme  ritualism,  there 
would  have  been  scarcely  anything,  if  anything  at  all, 
of  the  harlequinade  of  excitable  evangelism;  but  given 


THE  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  1 29 

the  one,  and  the  other  was  almost  inevitable ;  but  both 
are  to  be  deplored. 

They  alike  suggest  to  the  thoughtful  observer  the 
ominous  prevalence  of  romanticism  in  religion.  Seeing 
so  much  that  is  artificial,  fictitious,  and  extravagant  on 
the  surface,  he  is  not  surely  to  be  blamed  if  he  at  least 
wonders  whether  these  things  are  characteristic  of  Chris- 
tianity down  into  the  depths.  What  every  honest  heart 
primarily  desires  in  religion  is  veraciousness,  reality,  not 
show  and  illusion.  It  desires  solid  rock  for  a  founda- 
tion, not  flowers  for  ornamentation,  especially  not  the 
muslin  and  wax  flowers  of  the  milliner.  And  when  it  is 
called  on  to  believe  as  historical  the  assumptions  and 
fatuities  of  apostolic  succession,  which  are  about  as 
credible  as  would  be  the  theory  of  a  "  Salvationist"  who 
should  insist  on  tracing  the  "army"  through  a  long 
line  of  fighting  Christians  back  to  St.  Paul,  as  that 
apostle  in  particular  charged  Timothy,  his  successor,  to 
"fight  a  good  warfare";  and  when  it  is  called  on  to  ac- 
cept the  contradictions  involved  in  the  mass,  to  the  valid- 
ity of  which  this  apostolic  succession  is  deemed  neces- 
sary, and  for  the  offering  of  which  there  is  not  a  single 
instance  in  apostolic  literature,  it  may  well  question 
whether,  after  all,  the  romanticism  apparent  in  the  serv^- 
ice  is  not  a  sure  sign  of  romanticism  in  the  very  essence 
of  the  faith.  The  renaissance  of  medieval  Catholicism 
is  responsible  for  this  growing  skepticism,  which  can 
only  be  met  and  counteracted  by  a  return  on  the  part  of 
both  churchmen  and  evangelicals  to  the  sweeter,  saner, 
simpler,  and  more  genuine  ways  of  the  primitive  saints. 
When  we  are  all  unwilling  to  disfigure  the  worship  of 
God  by  the  sensationalisms  of  ritualism,  and  the  sensa- 


130      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tionalism  of  operatic  choirs  and  extravaganza  preachers, 
then  the  world  will  be  able  to  discern  more  clearly  the 
infinite  realities  which  it  is  designed  to  actualize  to  the 
spiritual  nature  of  man. 

From  the  character  of  this  renaissance,  it  would  seem 
that  it  ought  to  have  exercised  a  decisive  influence  on 
literature  and  art.  As  might  have  been  expected,  it  has 
quickened  solicitude  for  the  preservation  of  ancient 
cathedrals,  and  probably  it  has  had  something  to  do  with 
the  improvement  noticeable  in  church  architecture  ;  but 
Principal  Fairbairn  rates  its  effects  on  the  world  of  let- 
ters in  depreciatory  terms,  reminding  us  that  neither  of 
the  two  great  English  poets  of  the  century, — Tennyson 
and  Browning, — while  eminently  religious,  was  fasci- 
nated and  governed  by  Anglo-Catholic  ideals,  while  Ar- 
thur Clough,  Matthew  Arnold,  and  William  Morris,  who, 
from  their  relations  with  Oxford,  ought  to  have  been 
accessible  to  the  new  spirit,  turned  to  other  sources  for 
their  inspiration. '  And  Max  Nordau  has  not  so  much 
to  say  for  its  creative  power  in  the  realm  of  art.  To  its 
influence  he  traces  the  rise  of  the  pre-Raphaelite  brother- 
hood, with  which  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  Holman  Hunt, 
Millais,  Stephens,  Collinson,  and  Thomas  Woolner  were 
associated ;  and  of  these  eminent  men  he  writes  in  the 
most  delirious  invective  conceivable.^  Posterity  will  not 
approve  his  findings  and  will  assuredly  reverse  his  judg- 
ment. Whatever  may  be  their  defects,  and  though  they 
may  have  yielded  too  absolutely  to  the  genius  of  Cima- 
bue  and  Giotto,  ''the  renaissance  of  medieval  feeling" 
embodied  in  their  works  will  ever  appeal  to  the  culti- 

^  "  Catholicism,    Roman  and  Anglican,"  p.   313. 
2  "  Degeneration, "  Chap.   II. 


THE  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  I3I 

vated  mind  and  the  devout  spirit.  Every  school  of  art 
has  its  limitations ;  but  on  that  account  to  be  blind 
to  merit  is  only  an  indication  of  narrower  limits  in  the 
critic,  which  disqualify  him  for  his  task.  But  the  roman- 
tic painters,  however  distinguished,  illustrate  the  natu- 
ral scope  and  bearing  of  romanticism  in  religion.  Art  is 
its  natural,  if  not  its  necessary,  product.  It  depends  on 
pictures,  show,  music,  and  the  sensuous  refinements 
which  are  so  grateful  to  aesthetic  tastes,  if  not  to  exalted 
piety.  What  action,  then,  can  be  more  normal  than  its 
appeal  to  the  imagination,  and  what  more  inevitable  than 
that  it  should  stimulate  the  creative  imagination  ?  It  is 
not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  Anglo-Catholic  move- 
ment should  have  influenced  art  and  should  have  made 
the  people  of  England  more  amenable  to  the  gracious 
ministry  of  the  beautiful.  And  if  we  could  only  believe 
that  this  ministry  was  really  conducive  to  the  spiritual 
life  as  it  is  revealed  in  the  character  of  Jesus,  and  if  it 
were  only  true  that  it  tended  to  deliver  men  and  women 
from  sensuous  indulgences  and  nerved  them  to  heroic 
and  self-sacrificing  service  on  behalf  of  virtue,  we 
should  entertain  less  doubt  of  the  permanent  advantage 
to  mankind  of  the  Catholic  revival. 

Probably  there  are  sanguine  spirits  that  are  expect- 
ing, from  the  prominence  given  to  this  revival  in  numer- 
ous volumes  and  from  the  mighty  claims  put  forth  by 
its  leaders  and  supporters,  that  it  is  destined  to  swallow 
up  dissent  and  finally  establish  itself  triumphantly  on 
the  ruined  thrones  of  discredited  faiths.  But  there  is 
little  justification  in  facts  for  such  dreams  as  these. 
There  are  signs  that  the  inevitable  reaction  has  al- 
ready commenced  and  that  the  Catholic  renaissance  has 


132      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

been  more  than  checked  Never  have  stronger  protests 
been  uttered  than  have  been  given  to  the  public  of  late 
against  any  further  Romanizing  of  the  English  Church  ; 
and  never  has  a  more  determined  opposition  been  organ- 
ized against  such  innovations  than  has  made  itself  felt 
during  recent  years.  The  note  of  alarm  has  been 
sounded,  and  evangelical  Christendom  has  been  roused 
to  unusual  enthusiasm  on  behalf  of  the  Protestant  prin- 
ciple. But  the  fate  of  the  Catholic  movement  within 
the  Anglican  Establishment  may  be  judged  by  the 
present  apparent  arrest  of  papal  power  and  influence  ; 
for  if  the  very  seat  and  throne  of  its  strength  be  shaken, 
it  cannot  be  guaranteed  an  assuring  future.  Of  the 
Eternal  City,  it  used  to  be  said,  "When  Rome  falls, 
the  world  falls  "  ;  but  it  may  with  greater  confidence  be 
predicted  that  when  Rome  sacerdotal  crumbles  and  de- 
cays, all  the  little  ecclesiastical  Romes  will  rapidly  share 
her  fate.  And  that  this  process  has  commenced  a  va- 
riety of  tokens  indicate.  In  nearly  all  Catholic  coun- 
tries there  is  an  intellectual  revulsion  from  the  assump- 
tions of  the  dominant  faith.  "  In  Belgium,  the  conflict 
is  going  on  under  our  very  eyes,  political  on  the  surface, 
religious  beneath  it ;  in  Italy,  where  thought  is  most 
active,  the  claims  and  dogmas  of  the  church  are  handled 
most  freely ;  even  in  Spain,  political  aspirations  are 
wedded  to  ecclesiastical  denials."  ^  France  witnesses 
a  similar  antagonism,  only  characterized  by  more  bitter- 
ness and  vindictiveness.  The  very  priesthood  in  France 
has  been  suffering  serious  losses,  some  of  its  recruits 
and  even  some  of  its  members  abandoning  their  voca- 
tion  and   renouncing  their   vows.      An    English  paper 

^  Fairbairn,  "Catholicism,  Roman  and  Anglican,"  p.  69. 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  133 

writes :  "  A  deep  unrest,  according  to  the  '  CJweticn 
Frangais,'  pervades  the  ranks  of  the  lower  clergy  in 
France,  and  a  learned  priest,  M.  I'Abbe  Harrent,  in  a 
letter  of  resignation  he  has  just  sent  in  to  his  bishop, 
describes  the  situation  thus :  '  You  will  not  think  it 
strange  that,  myself  loyal,  laborious,  and  independent,  I 
am  quitting  a  world  of  hypocrisy  and  idleness,  in  whose 
lower  ranks  reigns  servility,  and  in  whose  upper  an  odi- 
ous arbitrariness.'  According  to  the  *  Cologne  Gazette,' 
in  the  Commune  Lichtenwald,  all  Roman  Catholics, 
except  five,  have  gone  over  to  the  Evangelical  Church. 
In  Hungary  the  Protestant  movement  also  makes  rapid 
progress,  in  one  commune  alone  eighty  families  having 
seceded  from  Rome ;  and  at  Gablonz  the  Reformed 
Church  has  received  an  accession  of  seven  hundred 
persons  during  the  past  year."  A  Lamennais  is  charmed 
from  the  ancient  altar  by  '*  new  political  ideals "  ;  a 
Renan  is  driven  by  the  unhistorical  Christ  of  the  Rom- 
ish Church  to  create  a  sentimental  Christ  of  romance  ; 
while  the  Abbe  Bourrier,  Abbe  Charbonnel,  the  cure 
of  Arabaux,  M.  Vidalot,  the  ex-priest,  M.  Philippot,  and 
a  host  of  other  clerics,  have  recently  gone  over  to  Prot- 
estantism.    Of  this  exodus,  Bourrier  writes : 

Yes,  I  affirm  it  .  .  .  that  there  is  to-day  in  France,  among  the 
Catholic  clergy,  a  great  lassitude  and  disgust,  an  immense  aspiration 
after  reform,  after  a  primitive  Christianity,  after  a  genuine  gospel 
renewal.  What  is  to  be  done  ?  French  Protestantism,  it  is  clear, 
has  a  great  and  glorious  mission  to  fulfill.  As  a  depository  of  the 
gospel  among  an  ignorant  and  pagan  multitude,  it  is  like  the 
small  nation  of  Israel  charged  to  guard  the  world's  hope  and  faith 
till  the  day  of  illumination.^ 

1  "Rome  From  the  Inside,"  p.  12. 


134      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

And  among  the  laity,  this  dissatisfaction  has  been 
intensified  by  what  is  known  as  the  Americanist  contro- 
versy, and  by  some  recent  decisions  of  the  Roman  con- 
gregations, and  by  the  encouragement  given  in  high 
ecclesiastical  quarters  to  the  odious  form  of  hysteria 
called  Anti-Semitism,  as  in  the  Dreyfus  case.  Signals 
of  distress  are  also  flying  in  several  directions,  indicating 
that  the  Catholic  ship  is  sorely  strained,  if  not  founder- 
ing.     One  writer  declares  that — 

It  is  becoming  more  and  more  difficult  to  fill  the  vacant 
places  in  the  priesthood.  There  are  seminaries  where  the  num- 
ber of  the  seminarists  decrease  every  year.  Enthusiasm  grows 
less,  while  the  obstacles  to  obeying  the  call  become  greater.  Con- 
sequently, many  dioceses  and  parishes  suffer  and  are  on  the  point 
of  falling  away  altogether  for  want  of  spiritual  directors,  and  the 
bishop  has  often  to  put  several  parishes  under  the  care  of  one 
priest.^ 

Another  Catholic  author,  referring  to  the  priest,  says  : 

He  seems  to  be  afraid  of  dealing  with  men  during  their  life- 
time, so  leaves  them  to  themselves,  hoping  that  when  they  come 
to  die  he  will  have  the  chance  of  bringing  them  to  the  fold.  He 
is  more  anxious  for  them  to  die  in  a  becoming  manner  than  that 
they  should  live  good  lives.  ^ 

And  from  other  sources  we  gather  these  additional 
and  significant  items.  It  is  asserted  that,  in  many  cases 
*'  the  bishop  has  no  influence  in  his  diocese,  nor  the 
cure  in  his  parish,  and  there  is  no  concerted  action  be- 
tween one  diocese  and  another."  Moreover,  "the  time 
when  the  church  was  a  regiment  marching  in  step  is 
now  only  a  memory."      ''The  priest  will  no  more  sub- 

^  '■'■  D Edncateur-Apdtre^''  by  Guibert,  Direct.  Seminary  of  Issy. 
^  "  Le  Clerge  Frangais  en  iSgo.''^ 


THE  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  1 35 

mit  to  the  orders  of  the  bishop  than  to  the  encycUcals 
of  the  pope.  They  cant ;  they  interpret ;  and  their 
everlasting  discussions  paralyze  all  effort."  Besides, 
priests  who  are  clever,  active,  and  independent  are  be- 
coming more  and  more  rare.  Indeed,  "  the  bishops  put 
aside  mercilessly  candidates  who  are  suspected  of  inde- 
pendence or  firmness."^  ''The  priests,  on  their  side, 
hate  those  bishops  who  are  weak  and  pliable.  They 
protest  against  their  power  of  judgment,  and  the  least 
timid  claim  that  the  post  to  be  filled  should  be  put  up 
to  competition,  so  that  the  good  livings  should  not  fall 
always  into  the  hands  of  the  most  designing,  but  some- 
times into  the  hands  of  the  most  capable."  - 

These  representations  are  ominous  ;  and,  as  though 
they  were  not  sufficient,  even  so  ardent  a  friend  as  Mr. 
W.  S.  Lilly,  takes  quite  a  pessimistic  view  of  what  is 
coming,  though  he  tries  to  make  the  best  of  a  forlorn 
hope.  He  says  :  ''  I  see  no  prospect  that  the  Catholic 
Church  will  again  hold  the  position  in  Europe  that  she 
held  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  that  the  pope  will  once  more 
occupy  the  great  international  office  assigned  him  in 
canon  law.  But  it  is  well  conceivable  that  in  the  new 
age,  which  is  even  now  upon  us,  the  pontiff's  moral 
influence  will  be  of  unparalleled  greatness,  as  from  his 
seat  by  the  tomb  of  the  apostles  he  surveys  his  ecumeni- 
cal charge,  and 

"  Listening  to  the  inner  flow  of  things, 
Speak  to  the  ages  out  of  eternity  ; 

reproving  the  world  of  sin,  of  righteousness,  and  judg- 

^  '■'■  Apergii  sur  la  Situation  de  la  Religion  et  du  Clerge  en  France.^'' 
2  '*  Conipte  Rendu  du  Congres  de  Reims.''' 


136      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEExNTH    CENTURY 

ment,  maintaining  the  divine  testimonies  before  kings 
and  democracies."^  But  this  enthusiastic  vision  will 
scarcely  be  acceptable  to  Leo  XIIL,  who,  with  the  entire 
ultramontane  party,  is  anxious  to  be  repossessed  of  the 
States  of  the  church,  and  to  exercise  an  influence  vastly 
different  from  what  seems  so  glorious  to  Mr.  Lilly.  But, 
according  to  this  author,  the  hopes  of  the  supreme  pon- 
tiff are  vain  ;  and  reading  further,  it  would  seem  that 
his  own  rest  on  very  slim  foundations,  as  he  acknowl- 
edges that  the  great  masters  of  literature,  from  Goethe 
until  now,  are,  on  the  whole,  ''  alien  from  Catholicism, 
if  not  opposed  to  it,"  and  if  they  are,  it  is  not  likely  that 
the  new  age  will  feel  the  benignant  sway  of  Mr.  Lilly's 
new  and  inconceivable  papacy. 

Nor  are  the  prospects,  as  viewed  from  the  practical 
standpoint  of  statistics,  brighter  or  more  assuring.  The 
recent  book  of  Dr.  Joseph  Miiller,  entitled  "  Der  Reforvi- 
katliolizismns,''  has  created  great  consternation  in  Cath- 
olic circles,  as  has  that  of  Professor  Schell,  ^^  Der  KatJio- 
lizismns  a  Is  Priiizip  dcs  FortscJiritts^''  and  both  are  of 
inestimable  value  to  the  student  who  desires  to  under- 
stand the  religious  movements  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
According  to  Miiller,  in  1895,  eighteen  thousand  per- 
sons in  Prussia  passed  from  the  Catholic  to  the  Protes- 
tant communions  as  against  two  thousand  from  the 
Protestant  to  the  Catholic.  In  Saxony,  twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  the  children  of  mixed  marriages  embrace  the 
Reform  faith.  Between  1872  and  1891,  in  the  diocese 
of  Cologne,  the  Catholic  population  increased  forty-two 
per  cent.,  while  that  of  Protestantism  increased  eighty- 
four  per  cent.     This  writer  also  lays  stress  on  the  in- 

^See  "The  Great  Enigma  "  and  "  Claims  of  Christianity." 


THE    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN  1 3/ 

feriority  of  Romanists  in  education,  and  consequently 
in  social  standing  ;  in  the  higher  schools  throughout  the 
German  States  the  relative  proportion  attending  being 
given  as  one  Catholic  to  two  Protestants.  Nothing  can 
be  more  disastrous  to  a  cause,  however  venerable,  than 
this  failure  to  keep  pace  with  the  growing  enlighten- 
ment of  the  times  ;  for  every  church  will,  in  the  long 
run,  have  to  take  account  of  this  increasing  intelligence/ 
If  it  is  supposed  that  this  decline  on  the  continent  of 
the  Old  World  is  more  than  balanced  by  the  gains  in 
England  and  the  New,  Dr.  Dorchester's  volume  on 
*'  The  Problem  of  Religious  Progress,"  will  speedily  dis- 
pel any  such  illusion.  He  proves  that  *'  Roman  Cathol- 
icism has  not  been  progressive  in  England  for  about  a 
quarter  of  a  century."  The  Oxford  movement  had 
practically  been  arrested  by  1875, — that  is,  at  least,  so 
far  as  numerous  secessions  from  the  Anglican  Church 
to  Romanism  is  concerned ;  and  yet,  with  the  influx  of 
wealth  and  distinguished  people  during  the  first  half  of 
the  century,  the  Catholics  in  England  barely  numbered 
a  million  in  1877.^  Dr.  Dorchester  also  shows  that,  in 
the  various  provinces  that  make  up  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  the  Romanist  communion  has  been  relatively 
losing  and  not  gaining.  The  situation  may  be  summed 
up  in  the  sentence  :  ''  Instead  of  only  ten  Protestants 
to  sixty-five  Romanists,  as  in  1765,  there  are  now 
twenty-six  Protestant  to  nineteen  Roman  Catholics."^ 
And  in  the  United  States,  the  increase  of  Roman 
Catholics  has  not  equaled  the  number  of  Catholic  im- 
migrants from  beyond  the  sea.    'The  Roman  CathoHc 

^See  London  "  Spectator,"  Oct.  21,  1899,  p.  564. 
2  Ibid.,  p.  544.  3  jjji^^^  p^  550. 


138      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

immigrants  from  all  countries,  and  their  offspring  dur- 
ing the  past  forty  years,  must  have  amounted  to  full 
ten  millions,  making  no  account  of  those  here  prior  to 
1880  and  their  descendants.  But  their  Year-Book  for 
1 89 1  gives  the  total  Catholic  population,  eight  million 
five  hundred  and  seventy-nine  thousand  nine  hundred 
and  sixty-six,^  illustrating  the  common  impression  that 
''  this  country  is  the  biggest  grave  for  popery  ever  dug 
on  earth."  This  survey  may  fittingly  be  closed  with  a 
few  suggestive  figures,  which  demonstrate  that,  how- 
ever wonderful  and  extensive  the  renaissance  of  medie- 
val Catholicism  may  have  been,  it  has  not  progressed  so 
amazingly  as  the  Reformation  has  advanced  from  the 
sixteenth  century  to  the  dawning  of  the  twentieth  : 
"  Romanism,  starting  in  the  year  1 500  on  a  basis  of 
about  eighty  millions,  has  not  quite  doubled,  while  the 
total  population  of  Europe  has  increased  three-and-a- 
half-fold,  and  Protestantism,  starting  nominally  from 
unity,  has  gained  eighty-seven  million  nine  hundred  and 
twenty-five  thousand  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine,  which 
is  thirteen  million  three  hundred  and  fifty-six  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  eighty  more  than  the  total  gain  of 
Romanism."^ 

Thus,  then,  we  have  reached  the  existing  boundaries 
of  romanticism  in  modern  religion.  We  have  followed 
its  rise  in  our  times,  have  traced  its  advance,  and  have 
been  brought  to  what  seems  to  be  its  limitations. 
Whether  these  will  ever  be  passed,  it  is  not  easy  to 
foresee,  and  certainly  it  would  not  be  wise,  without 
additional  light,  to  predict.     Classicism  in  the  beautiful 


1  See  London  "Spectator,"  Oct.  21,  1899,  pp.  584-5. 
2  Dorchester,  p.  528. 


THE  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  1 39 

gardens  of  the  Medici  at  Florence,  fostering  philosophy, 
poetry,  and  art,  may  ambitiously  have  anticipated  a  day 
when  the  entire  world  would  be  governed  by  its  ideals 
and  spirit ;  and  yet  its  children  and  heroes,  Poliziano, 
Filippo,  Brunclleschi,  Michelangelo,  Rustici,  Donatello, 
Francesco  Bandini,  and  the  other  celebrated  men  who 
rendered  famous  the  villa  at  Careggi,  appeared  upon 
the  scene,  wrought  their  work,  faded  from  human  vision, 
while  the  leafy  groves  withered  and  the  cause  they 
represented  lost  much  of  its  unique  and  distinctive 
character.  But  while  the  literary  renaissance  found  its 
limitations  and  was  to  be  modified  and  generalized  by 
other  tendencies,  there  was  much  that  it  denoted  and 
more  that  it  produced  of  priceless  value,  which  was 
destined  to  survive  and  permanently  to  influence  the 
course  of  civilization.  Thus  it  may  be  with  the  modern 
revival  of  Catholicism.  Its  special  forms,  its  peculiar 
institutions,  its  stereotyped  expressions,  its  narrowing 
theories  of  religion,  and  its  provincialism  scarcely  hidden 
under  its  clamorous  asseverations  of  universality,  may 
go  the  way  of  other  perishable  elements  ;  and  yet  it  may 
bequeath  to  the  coming  ages  exalted  conceptions  and 
ennobling  examples.  Succeeding  generations  may  trans- 
late its  materialistic  and  sensuous  speech  into  the  lan- 
guage of  spirit ;  and  in  the  transformation  there  may 
rise  to  bless  mankind  a  sublimer  type  of  Christianity 
than  pontiffs  in  their  imaginings  of  world-wide  dominion 
ever  painted,  or  ecclesiastics  in  their  most  elaborate  and 
gorgeous  ceremonials  ever  dreamed  of  symbolizing. 


IV 

THE  SEERS  AND  SAGES 


Are  there  no  wrongs  of  nations  to  redress  ; 
No  misery-frozen  scenes  of  wretchedness  ; 
No  orphans,  homeless,  staining  with  their  feet 
The  very  flagstones  of  the  wintry  street ; 
No  broken-hearted  daughters  of  despair, 
Forlornly  beautiful,  to  be  your  care  ? 
Is  there  no  hunger,  ignorance,  or  crime  ? 
Oh,  that  the  prophet-bards  of  old,  sublime, 
That  grand  Isaiah  and  his  kindred  just 
Might  rouse  ye  from  your  slavery  to  the  dust  ! 

—  T.L.  Harris 


IV 

\  THE    NEW    PROPHETISM    IN    MODERN    LITERATURE 

The  governing  spirit  of  an  age  will  always,  directly 
or  indirectly,  find  its  truest  and  most  genuine  expression 
in  its  literature.  From  the  interest  taken  in  the  poems 
of  Homer,  from  the  representations  of  popular  mythol- 
ogy on  the  stage,  and  from  the  criticism  of  current  poli- 
tics in  the  comic  drama,  we  gain  a  very  faithful  picture 
of  the  habits  and  institutions  of  the  Athenians.  Thus, 
also,  we  obtain  an  idea  of  the  ancient  agriculture  of 
Rome  from  the  "Georgics,"  and  of  her  imperial  great- 
ness from  the  "  JEneid,"  and  of  her  wasteful  dissolute- 
ness from  the  writings  of  Juvenal.  And  the  same  is 
true  of  every  era  since  the  decline  of  Greek  and  Latin 
culture.  Books  hold  up  a  mirror  to  the  times,  in  which 
may  be  traced  their  likeness.  Therein  may  be  discerned 
not  only  their  social,  industrial,  and  national  linea- 
ments, but  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  their  relig- 
ious life  as  well ;  and  as  literature,  pure  and  simple,  is 
not  supposed  to  yield  to  prejudice,  and  as  it  occupies  a 
position  so  detached  from  the  debates  of  parties  as  to  be 
favorable  to  a  world-wide  view,  it  may  furnish  us  with  a 
more  trustworthy  report  of  our  spiritual  tendencies  than 
may  be  supplied  by  technical  theological  discussions  or 
by  so-called  scientific  ecclesiastical  histories.  Of  this, 
Carlyle  could  have  had  little  doubt  when  he  penned  these 
striking  lines:  "'But  there  is  no  religion,'  reiterates  the 
Professor.      'Fool!   I  tell  thee  there  is.      Hast  thou  well 

143 


144      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

considered  all  that  lies  in  this  immeasurable  froth-stream 
we  name  Literature?  Fragments  of  a  genuine  Church 
Homiletic  lie  scattered  there,  which  Time  will  assort : 
nay,  fractions  even  of  a  Liturgy  could  I  point  out  now.'  " 
It  is  to  this  religious  element  in  literature  that  we  apply 
the  descriptive  title,  Prophetism. 

Originally,  the  priests  were  the  instructors  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  not  merely  their  intercessors.  While  their  pri- 
mary function  was  to  plead  for  them  with  God,  and  on 
their  behalf  to  offer  gifts  and  sacrifices,  they  were  also 
empowered  to  expound  thq  meaning  of  the  law  and  teach 
the  generations  its  principles  of  righteousness.^  Un- 
happily they  did  not  prove  themselves  equal  to  their 
august  responsibility,  and  in  the  times  of  the  judges 
their  degeneracy  was  so  marked  that  a  new  moral  order 
was  evoked.  The  ancient  prophets  came  into  existence 
with  the  selection  of  Samuel,  and  almost  from  the  be- 
ginning they  seem  to  have  discerned  the  weakness  of 
sacerdotalism,  and  to  have  antagonized  its  representa- 
tives. They  are  distinguished  by  an  intense  passion  for 
righteousness  and  by  an  unwavering  confidence  in  mono- 
theism. Over  and  above  ritual  they  exalt  morality,  and 
beyond  holiness  they  extol  righteousness.  Hosea  ex- 
claims: "I  desired  mercy,  and  not  sacrifice;  and  the 
knowledge  of  God  more  than  burnt  offerings."-  Amos, 
on  behalf  of  God,  says  :  "  I  hate,  I  despise  your  feast 
days,  and  I  will  not  smell  in  your  solemn  assemblies. 
Though  ye  offer  me  burnt  offerings  and  your  meat  of- 
ferings, I  will  not  accept  them ;  neither  will  I  regard 
the  peace  offerings  of  your  fat  beasts."^  And  Micah 
sums  up  the  sublime  message  of  his  order  in  the  classic 

^  Lev.  lo  :  II.  ^  Hosea  6  :  6.  ^  Amos  5  :  21,  22. 


THE  SEERS  AND  SAGES  145 

utterance  :  "  He  hath  shewed  thee,  O  man,  what  is  good  ; 
and  what  doth  the  Lord  require  of  thee,  but  to  do  justly, 
and  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  thy  God  ?  "  ^ 
These  men  were  remarkable  for  their  sincerity  in  times 
when  deceit  and  hypocrisy  had  invaded  the  temple ; 
they  were  conspicuous  for  their  patriotism  when  priests 
had  degenerated  into  shifty  politicians  and  were  ready 
to  seek  alliances  with  the  alien  ;  they  were  singular  in 
their  spirituality  when  Levites  were  perturbed  and  solic- 
itous about  altar  regulations  and  the  number  and  dignity 
of  sacrifices  ;  and  they  were  exceptional  in  their  ardent 
desire  for  light  and  in  their  abundant  labors  for  the 
enlightenment  of  the  world,  when  kings,  great  captains, 
and  mitred  rulers  were  willing  that  the  nation  should 
grope  in  darkness  and  perish  for  lack  of  knowledge. 
From  them  mankind  has  received  the  sacred  literature 
of  the  Hebrews.  They  were  its  authors.  The  ''  Bibli- 
otJicca  Divina,''  as  Jerome  named  the  collected  Scriptures 
in  the  fourth  century,  constitute  an  imperishable  memo- 
rial of  religious  experience  and  development  during  the 
periods  covered  by  their  annals ;  and  what  to  us  is  par- 
ticularly noteworthy,  they  were  not  prepared  by  high 
priests,  by  ecclesiastics  of  authority,  nor  by  venerable 
councils  or  stately  commissions,  but  by  inspired  men, 
often  having  no  official  relation  to  the  established  system 
of  religion,  and  receiving  no  license  or  ordination  from 
its  chief  representatives  to  speak,  and  frequently  being 
chosen  by  God  in  the  most  extraordinary  fashion,  as  an 
Elijah  called  from  among  the  outcasts  and  outlaws  of 
Gilead,  or  an  Amos  summoned  from  the  herdsmen  of 
Tekoa. 

1  Micah  6  :  8. 
K 


146      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

If  the  prophet  has  any  lineal  successor,  it  is  unques- 
tionably the  gospel  preacher  or  evangelist ;  but  unfortu- 
nately, in  a  number  of  instances,  he  has  no  clear  per- 
ception of  his  vocation.  He  is  always  in  danger  of  being 
dazzled  by  sacerdotal  functions  and  pretensions,  and  of 
surrendering  his  higher  mission  as  teacher  for  the  empty 
show  of  priestly  authority.  To  purify  the  conscience 
through  the  truth  is  a  much  more  ennobling  task  than 
to  exorcise  the  evil  by  forms  and  superstitions  ;  to  really 
enlighten  the  soul  is  surely  a  worthier  endeavor  than  to 
pretend  to  absolve  it  ;  and  to  move  the  guilty  heart  to 
penitence  is  far  more  elevating  than  to  impose  on  it 
torturing  penances.  But  the  analogy  between  the 
prophet  and  the  preacher  in  modern  life  fails  at  another 
point.  The  preacher,  unlike  the  prophet,  has  a  recog- 
nized standing  in  a  church,  has  been  tested  and  exam- 
ined by  a  group  of  officials,  who,  in  a  very  real  sense, 
determine  his  message  for  him,  and  is  usually  the  pro- 
duct of  theological  school  and  seminary.  He  is  thus, 
as  the  prophet  was  not,  a  part  of  a  system,  pledged  more 
or  less  to  stereotyped  forms  of  doctrines  as  the  ancient 
priest  was  to  stereotyped  rubrics,  to  depart  from  which 
in  either  case  is  regarded  as  disloyalty  to  solemn  vows. 
Consequently,  he  frequently  lacks  in  spontaneity,  in 
freedom,  and  that  openness  of  soul  which  made  his 
prototype  the  receptacle  of  heavenly  visions  and  the 
channel  of  divine  revelations.  There  have  been,  and 
there  are,  notable  exceptions  to  this  deficiency;  and 
when  they  occur,  we  have  within  the  church  living 
approximations  to  what  the  old  prophets  were,  if  not  in 
those  miraculous  gifts  which  were  necessarily  tempo- 
rary in  their  nature,  at  least  in  those  endowments  and 


THE  SEERS  AND  SAGES  147 

spiritual  qualities  which  were  of  permanent  value.  But 
as  ministers  of  the  gospel  do  not  always  evince  these 
qualities,  and  as  the  old  prophets  were  not,  in  the  same 
sense  as  the  priests  were,  officially  related  to  what  was 
essentially  a  church,  it  seems  as  though  in  our  times, 
beyond  ecclesiastical  circles  and  professional  ministries, 
God  may  have  an  order  of  men,  who,  though  not  like 
the  prophets  in  their  supernatural  powers,  resemble 
them  in  their  high  calling  as  the  interpreters  of  spirit- 
ual mysteries  and  as  the  heralds  of  hope  to  long-suffer- 
ing races. 

It  seems  to  me  that  this  order  is  disclosed  most 
vividly  and  unmistakably  in  the  loftier  and  purer  eleva- 
tions of  modern  literature.  Not  that  I  am  restricting 
its  manifestations  arbitrarily  to  the  last  hundred  years : 
for  I  know  very  well  that  it  can  be  detected  in  the  awful 
Nemesis  proclaimed  by  the  tragic  muse  of  yEschylus, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides  ;  and  in  the  admonitions  and 
dreams  of  Piers  Plowman  ;  and  in  the  Utopia  visited  by 
Raphael  Hythloday  and  duly  chronicled  by  veracious  Sir 
Thomas  More  ;  and  in  the  apocalyptic  poems  of  Dante  ; 
and  in  the  matchless  plays  of  Shakespeare,  wherein 
the  supernatural  world  haunts  the  steps  of  Hamlet  and 
Macbeth,  wherein  the  moral  world  asserts  itself  in  the 
fate  of  Shylock,  Richard,  and  lago,  and  where  the 
human  world,  in  all  its  littleness  and  greatness,  appears 
in  its  Henrys,  its  Woolseys,  its  Hotspurs,  its  Falstaffs, 
its  Katharines,  its  Audreys,  and  its  Lears.  Still,  the 
number  of  these  teachers  is  relatively  small,  and  they 
are  widely  separated  in  time.  They  are  as  solitary 
voices  crying  out  here  and  there  in  the  wilderness 
of    history.     Not   until   the   closing   years  of    the   last 


148      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

century,  and  throughout  the  course  of  this,  do  we 
observe  a  distinct  tendency  and  accumulation  of  voices, 
or,  in  other  words,  an  unexampled  development  of 
prophetism  in  literature. 

But  this  is  not  merely  exceptional  in  amount ;  it  is 
unique  in  character.  The  higher  truths  of  theology 
have  become  the  subject-matter  of  poems  ;  transcen- 
dental philosophies  which  touch  the  very  core  of  religion 
have  been  illuminated  in  stately  verse ;  the  deeper 
mysteries  of  spiritual  being  have  been  made  the  theme 
of  essay,  epic,  and  romance  ;  while  a  thing  unheard  of 
by  our  sires  has  occurred  so  frequently  as  now  to  have 
lost  its  strangeness — the  issues  between  Christianity 
and  infidelity,  and  the  debatable  phases  of  Christianity 
itself,  have  been  transferred  to  the  pages  of  fiction,  and 
these  imaginary  creations  discuss  in  the  presence  of  com- 
monplace readers  questions  most  vital  to  the  world's 
faith,  and  which,  in  the  olden  times,  would  only  have 
been  touched  by  venerable  professors  of  theology.  To 
this  movement  there  is  a  very  significant  side.  There 
is  a  more  or  less  strident  cry  against  the  introduction  of 
doctrinal  subjects  into  the  pulpit  ;  and  yet,  while  the 
preacher  is  warned  not  to  discuss  higher  criticism,  his 
parishioner  is  greedily  devouring  Robert  Elsmere  ;  and 
while  he  is  urged  not  to  say  anything  about  the  future 
life  and  the  doctrines  of  grace,  David  Elginbrod  and 
Robert  Falconer  are  quietly  undermining  the  faith  of 
his  people.  He  wonders  why  the  novel  is  so  popular, 
and  why  the  sermon  seems  unattractive.  Perhaps  if  he 
would  more  frequently  disdain  advice,  and  fasten  the 
attention  of  his  congregation  on  the  more  massive  and 
enduring  conceptions  of   religion,  he  would  not  have  to 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  1 49 

bemoan  empty  pews  and  listless  hearers.  I  say  this  with- 
out designing  to  class  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward,  or  George 
Macdonald  either,  with  the  prophets.  Whether  they  and 
others  of  their  rank  and  type  belong  to  this  order  or 
not,  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  determine.  I  mention 
them  simply  as  a  sign  of  what  is  peculiar  to  this  age — 
that  religious  questions  are  being  debated  and  deter- 
mined outside  of  the  church,  which  is  an  indication  of 
the  large  place  religion  has  come  to  occupy  in  the  litera- 
ture of  the  century  and  in  the  thought  of  mankind. 

To  prevent  misconception,  it  may  be  well  to  explain 
that  prophetism  does  not  always  carry  with  it  the  assur- 
ance of  personal  blamelessness.  Balaam  gave  expression 
to  some  beautiful  thoughts  and  obtained  a  wonderful 
insight  into  God's  dealings  with  Israel,  and  yet  his  char- 
acter was  such  that  no  one  has  ever  ventured  to  canon- 
ize him.  We  all  cherish  his  message  and  see  in  it  the 
marks  of  heavenly  inspiration  ;  but  we  are  not  fascinated 
by  the  messenger.  The  conduct  of  some  other  prophets 
whose  names  are  enrolled  in  the  Bible  is  also  not  beyond 
reproach.  It  will  not,  therefore,  amaze  us  if  we  dis- 
cover that  some  among  the  great  writers  of  our  own 
times,  who  have  discoursed  eloquently  and  searchingly 
of  the  deep  things  of  creation  and  providence,  have  been 
harsh,  censorious,  bigoted,  or  vain,  and  sometimes  even 
of  flexible  virtue.  While  many  of  them,  let  us  say  the 
majority,  have  been  men  and  women  of  integrity  and 
purity,  there  have  been  black  sheep  in  the  flock.  We 
do  not  extenuate  their  foibles  and  frailties,  and  in 
quoting  from  them  do  not  mean  to  approve  all  of  their 
ethical  distinctions,  and  are  sure  they  would  have  given 
forth  a  sweeter  music  if  the  reed  had  not  been  bruised; 


150      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  }'ct  it  is  for  us  to  learn  that  God  can  awaken  some 
harmonious  sounds,  even  through  a  damaged  instrument, 
and  even  though  at  times  they  may  be  accompanied  by 
certain  moral  dissonances.  We  are  bound  to  discrim- 
inate. Deflections  from  virtue  we  ought  to  condemn, 
and  the  children  of  genius  are  no  more  to  be  exonerated 
than  the  children  of  mediocrity.  We  could  hope  that 
all  of  them  in  future  would  imitate  John  Milton  in  his 
view  of  the  mission  to  which  he  was  called  of  God.  A 
most  interesting  account  of  the  feelings  that  moved  him 
and  the  principles  that  governed  him  in  taking  up  his 
pen  has  been  furnished  by  an  eminent  English  scholar, 
and  is  worthy  of  being  cited  here  : 

Though  Milton  declined  the  priestly  function  in  the  EngHsh 
Church,  he  was  not,  in  his  own  conception,  the  less  a  priest  on  that 
account.  The  priesthood  to  which  he  aspired  was  the  bardic  priest- 
hood. The  inspiration  he  sought  was  that  which  had  come  upon  the 
old  prophets — an  inspiration  which  might  come  upon  them  as  lay- 
men but  which  raised  them  to  a  level  with  the  most  sacred  themes. 
In  his  apprehension,  a  poet  of  the  order  which  he  hoped  to  be  must 
be  a  consecrated  man.  The  singer  of  bacchanahan  songs  may  be 
himself  bacchanalian,  but  a  poet  who  would  ascend  to  things  celes- 
tial must  not  be  of  the  earth,  earthy.  The  evil  inseparable  from 
our  nature  may  qualify  him  to  depict  evil  ;  but  if  he  is  to  make 
men  feel  how  awful  goodness  is,  he  must  have  striven  hard  toward 
those  higher  regions  of  being  where  goodness  rules.  In  all  art 
the  truly  religious  element  must  come  from  religious  men.  Genius 
without  sanctity  may  touch  the  ark,  but  it  will  be  but  to  profane 
it.  However  much  at  home  in  other  regions,  if  the  special  facuUy 
for  this  region  be  wanting,  success  will  be  wanting.  In  art,  as  in 
religion,  the  natural  man  does  not  discern  spiritual  things.^ 

When  this  great  example  is  not  followed,  we  should 

1  Robert  Vaughan,  d.  d.,  "Life  of  Milton." 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  I5I 

be  free  to  rebuke  iniquity ;  but  we  never  should  be 
oblivious  to  the  service  rendered  mankind  by  the  new 
prophetism,  even  when  the  standard  has  not  been  so 
high.  It  has  conveyed  religious  truths  to  millions  whom 
the  church  has  been  powerless  to  reach  ;  it  has  some- 
times rendered  these  truths  more  attractive,  more  trans- 
parent and  acceptable  to  ordinary  understandings  than 
they  have  been  made  in  the  usual  course  of  pulpit  teach- 
ing ;  it  has  also  kept  alive  the  impression  that  God  still 
touches  the  thought  of  man,  and  has  made  more  real 
the  thought  that  religion  is  not  a  blessing  restricted  to 
ecclesiastical  organizations,  but  is  as  wide  as  humanity 
and  as  deep  as  human  needs.  This  service  is  not  per- 
functory, official,  wrapped  up  with  the  interests  of  a 
commanding  institution  whose  vigor  demands  a  constant 
increase  of  adherents.  It  is  voluntary,  free,  above  sus- 
picion, and  consequently  admirably  fitted  to  arrest  atten- 
tion, to  compel  reflection,  and  to  solemnize  the  heart. 

But  let  us  now  scrutinize  this  prophetism  more  closely, 
that  we  may  understand  its  scope,  its  trend,  its  under- 
currents, and  its  apparent  haven.  In  what  direction 
is  it  moving  ?  What  ideals  is  it  seeking  to  actualize, 
and  to  what  hopes  does  it  seem  pledged  and  conse- 
crated }  Is  it  so  completely  theological  that  it  has  lost 
sight  of  man  as  a  social  being,  and  is  it  so  concerned 
with  eternal  things  that  it  has  no  place  for  those  that 
are  temporal  ?  At  Weimar  there  is  a  statue  of  Goethe 
and  Schiller.  The  pose  and  attitude  are  typical  of  the 
men.  Goethe  has  his  arm  extended  as  to  command  the 
world,  Schiller  has  his  eyes  lifted  up  to  heaven  ;  for, 
as  a  critic  observes,  ''  he  always  ended  among  the  stars." 
This  statue  may  be  taken  as  a  symbol  in  bronze  of  the 


152      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

two-fold  position  of  the  new  prophetism.  It  contemplates 
the  subordination  of  the  world  to  the  spiritual  ideals  of 
the  gospel ;  and  it  is  searching  in  the  heights  of  the 
unseen  universe  for  fresh  disclosures  of  the  infinite 
mystery.  Thus  it  has  a  hand  toward  the  earth  and 
eyes  toward  heaven,  and  is  in  reality  promoting  the 
union  of  the  human  with  the  divine. 

One  thing  is  clear:  it  is  not  seeking  to  achieve  this 
end  by  clothing  its  message  with  the  forms  of  medieval 
Catholicism.  Tennyson,  in  some  respects  a  representa- 
tive of  the  prophetic  order,  when  he  gives  musical  ex- 
pression to  our  doubts  and  fears,  our  perplexity  in  the 
face  of  evil,  our  crying  in  the  darkness  for  the  light,  has 
in  him  no  appeal  to  sacerdotalism  or  to  priestly  rites. 
And  Browning,  even  more  of  a  distinctively  religious 
poet  than  Tennyson,  is  equally  free  of  sympathy  with 
hierarchies  and  sacraments,  and  reveals  his  Puritan 
descent  in  his  strong  love  of  liberty,  in  his  recognition 
of  a  ''hidden  splendor"  in  us  all,  and  in  his  confidence 
that  the  All-great  is  the  All-loving  too,  who,  "  through 
the  thunder,  speaks  with  human  voice."  The  new 
prophetism  is  rather  away  from  ancient  sacerdotalism 
than  toward  it  ;  even  away  rather  from  church  organi- 
zations and  systematic  theologies  than  toward  them  ; 
and  it  is  inclined  to  exalt  mystic  feelings  above  intel- 
lectual dogma,  to  exalt  Christ  above  the  creed,  and  man, 
man  in  the  majesty  of  his  essential  being  as  the  very 
Shekinah  of  God,  above  picturesque  patriarchates  and 
painted  pontificates. 

Modern  German  literature  amply  illustrates  this  ten- 
dency toward  what  may  be  termed  the  spiritual.  Jean 
Paul  Richter  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the  sacred 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  153 

fire  that  has  been  kindled  on  the  altars  of  the  fair 
humanities.  In  his  own  exquisite  way  he  is  reported  to 
have  said  :  "  Providence  has  given  to  the  French  the 
empire  of  the  land,  to  the  English  that  of  the  sea,  to 
the  German  that  of — the  air."  If  by  the  *'air"  he 
means  the  higher  intellectual  life,  continually  verging 
toward  mysticism,  his  position  can  hardly  be  gainsaid ; 
for  if  Boehm,  Novalis,  and  the  school  of  theosophy,  and 
the  transcendental  philosophers,  Kant,  Fichte,  and 
Schelling,  do  not  establish  the  pre-eminence,  then  evi- 
dence is  unavailing.  This  Jean  Paul  himself  is  a  good 
instance  of  the  aerial  and  ethereal  habitude  of  his  coun- 
trymen. He  has  been  suspected  of  something  worse 
than  skepticism,  because  he  abruptly  inquires:  ''Are  all 
your  mosques,  Episcopal  churches,  pagodas,  chapels  of 
ease,  tabernacles,  and  Pantheons,  anything  else  but  the 
ethnic  forecourt  of  the  invisible  temple  and  its  holy  of 
holies  ?  "  Yet,  what  have  we  in  this  doubt  ''  writ  large  " 
but  the  deep  conviction  of  all  minds  emancipated  from 
ecclesiastical  tradition,  expressed  in  a  somewhat  ara- 
besque style  ?  He  who  has  read  the  ''  Campancrthal,''  a 
discourse  on  morality,  or  who  has  meditated  on  these  sen- 
tences :  "  When,  in  your  last  hour  (think  of  this),  all 
faculty  in  the  broken  spirit  shall  fade  away  and  die  into 
inanity, — imagination,  thought,  effort,  enjoyment, — then 
at  last  will  the  night  flower  of  belief  alone  continue  bloom- 
ing and  refresh  with  its  perfumes  in  the  last  darkness," 
will  recognize  in  Richter  a  devout  soul  inspiring  his 
turbulent  genius  with  exalted  religious  aspirations. 
Recall  this  passage  : 

I  walked  silently  through  little  hamlets  and  close  by  their  outer 
churchyards,   where    crumbling    coffin-boards  were    glimmering, 


154      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

while  the  once  bright  eyes  that  had  laid  in  them  were  moulding 
into  gray  ashes.  Cold  thought !  clutch  not,  like  a  cold  spectre, 
at  my  heart.  1  look  up  to  the  starry  sky,  and  an  everlasting  chain 
stretches  thither  and  over  and  below  ;  and  all  is  life  and  warmth 
and  light,  and  all  is  godlike  or  God. 

And,  as  you  reflect  on  what  it  involves,  you  will  per- 
ceive that  you  are  communing  with  a  mind  that  is 
reaching  out  toward  the  truth  as  taught  by  Christ, 
"  God  is  a  Spirit,  and  they  that  worship  him  must  wor- 
ship him  in  spirit  and  in  truth."  What  can  be  more 
practical  and  more  conducive  to  the  spiritual  advance- 
ment of  mankind  than  the  sentiments  didactically  put 
in  his  "Levana  "  ? 

At  least  two  miracles  or  revelations  remain  for  you  uncontested  in 
this  age  which  deadens  sound  with  unreverberating  materials  ;  they 
resemble  an  old  and  a  new  testament,  and  are  these — the  birth 
of  finite  being,  and  the  birth  of  life  within  the  hard  wood  of  matter. 
For  in  one  inexplicable  thing  every  other  is  involved,  and  one 
miracle  annihilates  the  whole  philosophy.  Consequently,  you 
do  not  act  the  part  of  a  hypocrite  when  you  permit  the  child  to 
draw  anything  out  of  the  book  of  religion,  or  the  secret  book  of 
nature,  which  you  cannot  explain.  Living  religion  grows  not  by 
the  doctrines  but  by  the  narratives  of  the  Bible.  The  best  Chris- 
tian religious  doctrine  is  the  life  of  Christ ;  and,  after  that,  the 
sufferings  and  deaths  of  his  followers,  even  those  not  related  in 
holy  writ.^ 

These  views  enter  very  fully  into  the  writings  of  Jean 
Paul,  and  all  tend  in  the  direction  of  a  spirituality  un- 
trammeled  by  the  narrowness  of  inflexible  creeds  and 
unhampered  by  the  burdens  of  ecclesiastical  distinctions 
and  exactions.  One  of  Schiller's  poems,  in  summing 
up  his   own  belief,  seems  to   sum  up  that  of   Richter 

'  "  I.evana,"  Fragment  III. 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  1 55 

also,  even  as  it  expresses  the  underlying  sentiment  of 
the  literary  school  to  which  he  belonged,  the  traces  of 
whose  influence  are  seen  in  the  products  of  English  and 
American  thought : 

Man  is  made  free  ! — Man  by  birthright  is  free, 

Though  the  tyrant  may  deem  him  but  born  for  his  tool. 

Whatever  the  shout  of  the  rabble  may  be — 
Whatever  the  ranting  misuse  of  the  fool — 

Still  fear  not  the  slave,  when  he  breaks  from  his  chain, 

For  a  man  made  a  freeman  grows  safe  in  his  gain. 

And  Virtue  is  more  than  a  shade  or  a  sound. 
And  man  may  her  voice  in  his  being  obey  ; 

And  though  ever  he  slip  on  the  stony  ground, 
Yet  ever  again  to  the  godlike  way, 

To  the  science  of  Good,  though  the  wise  may  be  blind. 

Yet  the  practice  is  plain  to  the  childlike  mind. 

And  a  God  there  is  ! — over  space  and  time, 

While  the  human  will  rocks,  like  a  reed  to  and  fro, 

Lives  the  Will  of  the  Holy — a  purpose  sublime, 
A  thought  woven  over  creation  below  ; 

Changing  and  shifting  the  All  we  inherit, 

But  changeless  through  one  Immutable  Spirit.^ 

Of  Schiller  I  have  no  reason  to  write.  These  verses 
speak  for  him  and  ally  him  with  the  genius  of  Jean  Paul, 
and  identify  him  with  those  whose  idealism  is  born  of 
the  divine  and  whose  constant  lamentation  is  that  they 
fail  to  clutch  the  stars  : 

This  space  between  the  Ideal  of  man's  soul 
And  man' s  achievement,  who  hath  ever  past  ? 

An  ocean  spreads  between  us  and  that  goal. 
Where  anchor  ne'  er  was  cast.  ^ 

1  •'  Words  of  Belief,"  translated  by  Lord  Lytton. 
2  "The  Ideal  and  the  Actual  Life." 


156      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

With  these  men  we  do  not  class  Goethe.  There  is 
not  much  about  him,  particularly  in  his  elegant  Weimar 
surroundings,  that  is  suggestive  of  the  prophet.  He 
has  been  called  the  great  Olympian,  and  we  more  readily 
associate  him  with  Mount  Parnassus  than  with  Mount 
Carmel;  and  this  too,  not  because  he  fails  in  respect 
for  religion.  In  his  ''Conversations"  with  Eckermann 
and  in  his  works  there  are  various  allusions  to  the  value 
and  beauty  of  the  Gospels  ;  and  in  his  interpretation  of 
the  ''  Three  Reverences,"  he  assigns  the  highest  to  Chris- 
tianity :  *'  Reverence  for  what  is  under  us,  a  last  step  to 
which  mankind  were  fitted  and  destined  to  attain."  But, 
notwithstanding  his  concessions,  and  they  sound  like 
concessions,  there  is  a  pagan  air  about  the  man,  a  cer- 
tain coldness  and  stiffness  ;  and  when  we  hear  him  say, 
"  Let  every  enthusiast  be  put  on  a  cross  when  he  reaches 
his  thirtieth  year ;  when  once  he  comes  to  know  the 
world,  he  ceases  to  be  a  dupe  and  becomes  a  rogue," 
we  realize  keenly  that  he  is  aloof  from  the  ''  goodly 
company  of  the  prophets."  But  though  he  may  not 
rank  with  them,  and  though  he  is  too  much  of  an  artist 
to  be  a  seer,  it  is  still  to  his  credit  that  he  does  not 
withhold  the  tribute  of  his  genius  from  the  imperishable 
beauty  of  the  spiritual. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  new  prophetism  has  attained 
impressive  proportions,  and  probably  its  real  scope  and 
development  can  be  more  advantageously  studied  in  its 
literature  than  in  that  of  any  other  nation.  While, 
therefore,  we  shall  not  and  should  not  overlook  entirely 
what  kindred  peoples  have  written  relating  to  our  theme, 
we  are  bound  to  concern  ourselves  principally  with  its 
unfolding  in  the  progress  of  English  letters.     Instantly, 


THE  SEERS  AND  SAGES  157 

as  we  do  so,  the  form  of  Wordsworth  emerges  from  the 
mists  of  the  past  and  we  reaUze  that  we  are  in  the 
presence  of  one  who  "  was  called  of  God  to  be  a  prophet." 
We  have  no  such  impression  when  we  think  of  his 
contemporary,  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Mr.  William  Wallace, 
of  Glasgow,  I  know,  rates  the  spiritual  and  ethical  in- 
fluence of  the  famous  novelist  very  high,  and  says,  *'He 
was  the  greatest  moral  sanitarian  that  ever  appeared  in 
the  world  of  imagination."  This  unquestionably  is  true, 
and  yet,  while  he  may  have  been  a  literary  health-lift, 
he  was  distinctly  not  spiritual.  But  it  was  different 
with  the  poet  of  the  Lake  district.  He  himself  con- 
tinually trails  "  clouds  of  glory "  in  his  song,  and  his 
thought  is  constantly  illumined  by  a  ''  light  that  never 
was  on  sea  or  land,"  and,  as  we  listen  to  his  voice,  it  is 
as  though  we  heard,  as  in  the  convolutions  of  a  shell, 
the  murmurs  of  a  distant  sea.  His  poetry  is,  as  Cole- 
ridge said  of  the  '^  Prelude  "  : 

An  Orphic  song  indeed, 

A  song  divine,  of  high  and  passionate  thoughts 

To  their  own  music  chanted. 

And  he  writes  of  God,  of  nature,  of  man,  of  their  fel- 
lowships and  harmonies,  of  their  interblending  and  re- 
ciprocal relations.  His  prophetism  is  theological.  Fun- 
damental religious  conceptions  are  rarely  absent  from 
his  mind;  he  ever  returns  to  them  in  his  poems  and 
lingers  fondly  over  them.  In  contradistinction  to  Cow- 
per,  who  was  influenced  by  the  Scriptures  and  expounded 
in  some  degree  their  evangelical  doctrine,  Wordsworth 
was  mainly  devoted  to  natural  theology.  He  pictures 
God  as  "Wisdom  and  spirit  of  the  universe,"  and  ad- 
dresses him  in  solemn  and  exalted  phrase  : 


158      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Thou  Soul  that  art  the  Eternity  of  thought, 
And  giv'  St  to  forms  and  images  a  breath 
And  everlasting  motion  ;  not  in  vain, 
By  day  or  starlight,  thus  from  my  first  dawn 
Of  childhood  didst  thou  intertwine  for  me 
The  passions  which  build  up  our  human  soul. 

On  the  grandeur  and  all-pervasive  influence  of  this 
Being  he  delights  to  meditate.     His 

Dwelling  is  the  light  of  setting  suns, 

And  the  round  ocean,  and  the  living  air, 

And  the  blue  sky,  and  in  the  mind  of  man 

A  motion  and  a  spirit  that  impels 

All  thinking  things,  all  objects  of  all  thought, 

And  rolls  through  all  things. 

To  him  nature  is  a  living  thing,  or  perhaps  rather  a 
series  of  correlated  things,  each  according  to  its  kind 
feeling  the  life  of  God.  Hence  he  has  been  accused  of 
pantheism.  I  do  not  think  the  charge  has  been  authen- 
ticated. While  he  evidently  believes  in  the  immanence 
of  God,  there  are  passages  in  his  poems  which  seem  to 
demand  his  transcendence.  But,  either  way,  the  whole 
drift  of  his  teaching  is  alien  to  materialism.  It  rejects, 
scorns,  and  deplores  a  philosophy  which  substitutes  a 
mechanical  principle  for  the  all-animating  and  sustaining 
spirit  of  creation.  Nature  is  not  a  corpse,  a  dead  thing 
that  cannot  commune  with  man.  There  is  in  it  a  voice, 
and  there  is  in  it  a  power  that  makes  us  feel  deeply  the 
mysteries  of  faith.  These  beliefs  are  illustrated  in  the 
familiar  lines  where  the  child  is  represented  as  hearing 
the  ocean's  murmurings  in  the  shell  : 

Even  such  a  shell  the  universe  itself 

Is  to  the  ear  of  faith  ;  and  there  are  times. 


THE   SEERS   AND    SAGES  1 59 

I  doubt  not,  when  to  you  it  doth  impart 
Authentic  tidings  of  invisible  things  ; 
Of  ebb  and  flow,  and  ever-during  power  ; 
And  central  peace,  subsisting  at  the  heart 
Of  endless  agitation. 

And  writing  of    a  herdsman    on   '*  a  lonely  mountain- 
top,"  the  poet  advances  a  step  farther : 

Early  had  he  learned 
To  reverence  the  volume  that  displays 
The  mystery,  the  life  which  cannot  die  ; 
But  in  the  mountains  did  he  feel  his  faith. 
All  things  responsive  to  the  writing,  there 
Breathed  immortality,  revolving  life, 
And  greatness  still  revolving,  infinite  ; 
There  littleness  was  not  ;  the  least  of  things 
Seemed  infinite  ;  and  there  his  spirit  shaped 
Her  prospects,  nor  did  he  believe — he  saw. 

In  verses  such  as  these,  however,  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  he  exalts  man  as  well  as  nature.  If  nature  can 
impart  and  teach,  man  is  susceptible  to  her  influences 
and  can  learn.  To  commune  together  implies  something 
in  common :  and  he  who  can  understand,  even  in  part, 
the  speech  of  God  articulated  in  sun,  moon,  stars, 
in  drifting  clouds  and  fragrant  flowers,  cannot  be  but 
allied  to  him,  both  in  his  origin  and  destiny  : 

Hence  in  a  season  of  calm  weather 

Though  inland  far  we  be, 

Our  souls  have  sight  of  that  immortal  sea 
Which  brought  us  hither  ; 
Can  in  a  moment  travel  thither. 

And  see  the  children  sport  upon  the  shore 

And  hear  the  mighty  waters  rolling  evermore. 


l60      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

It  is  generally  allowed  that  the  French  Revolution 
appealed  profoundly  to  Wordsworth's  imagination,  as  it 
did  to  many  other  brilliant  minds  on  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  To  him  it  came  as  a  historic  con- 
firmation of  his  fairest  hopes.  He  saw  in  its  upheavals 
and  changes  promises  of  the  better  age.  Of  them,  its 
expectation  had  not  been  born,  but  was  the  necessary 
outcome  of  his  spiritual  and  optimistic  philosophy.  But 
they  were  to  him  assurances  that  his  dream  was  not  an 
unrealizable  illusion,  and  encouraged  him  to  proclaim 
his  faith  : 

I  with  him  believed 
That  a  benignant  spirit  was  abroad 
Which  might  not  be  withstood,  that  poverty 
Abject  to  this  would  in  a  little  time 
Be  found  no  more,  that  we  should  see  the  earth 
Unthwarted  in  her  wish  to  recompense 
The  meek,  the  lowly,  patient  child  of  toil  ; 
All  institutes  forever  blotted  out 
That  legalized  exclusion,  empty  pomp 
Abolished,  sensual  state  and  cruel  power, 
Whether  by  edict  of  the  one  or  few  ; 
And  finally,  as  sum  and  crown  of  all. 
Should  see  the  people  having  a  strong  hand 
In  framing  their  own  laws  ;  whence  better  days 
To  all  mankind. 

And  sentiments  such  as  these  have  been  gaining 
ground  throughout  the  century,  deepening  the  convic- 
tion that  the  fairest  social  life  of  man  depends  in  a  very 
vital  sense  on  the  philosophy  cherished  regarding  his 
origin  and  dignity. 

In  Robert  Browning  we  have  perhaps  the  prophets' 
most  brilliant  representative  if  not  their  most  musical 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  l6l 

and  artistic  champion ;  but  in  him  they  are  more  com- 
pletely identified  with  Christianity  than  in  many  other 
writers,  and  his  prophetism  seems  to  be  as  fully  inspired 
by  revelation  as  by  nature.  "  I  believe  in  God  and  truth 
and  love,"  is  the  first  article  of  the  poet's  creed,  and 
the  second : 

I  say  the  acknowledgment  of  God  in  Christ 
Accepted  by  thy  reason,  sohes  for  thee 
All  questions  in  the  earth  and  out  of  it. 

In  a  very  actual  sense,  Browning  is  theological,  and 
in  his  works  reflects  the  profoundest  religious  thought 
of  his  age.  What  Edward  Caird  has  done  in  prose 
within  the  boundary  of  organized  Christianity,  the  poet 
has  done  beyond.  He  is  no  pantheist.  '*  What  I  call 
God  and  fools  call  nature,"  is  his  preliminary  statement 
to  a  theism  of  the  loftiest  kind,  in  which  love  becomes 
the  crown  and  glory  : 

For  the  loving  worm  within  its  clod 
Were  diviner  than  a  loveless  God 
Amid  his  worlds. 

Hence,  his  discrimination  and  confidence  as  developed 
in  "  A  Soul's  Tragedy  "  : 

I  trust  in  nature  for  the  stable  laws 

Of  beauty  and  utility.  .  . 

I  trust  in  God — the  right  shall  be  the  right 

And  other  than  the  wrong,  while  he  endures. 

But  in  the  poems  "Pauline,"  "Christmas  Eve,"  and 
"Easter  Day,"  the  author  advances  toward  the  central 
gospel  conceptions  of  our  Lord's  divinity  and  atoning 
sacrifice.     Thus  devoutly  he  appeals  to  Christ  : 

L 


1 62      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

O  thou  pale  form  !  .   .   . 
Oft  have  I  stood  by  thee — 
Have  I  been  keeping  lonely  watch  with  thee 
In  the  damp  night  by  weeping  Olivet, 
Or  leaning  on  thy  bosom,  proudly  less, 
Or  dying  with  thee  on  the  lonely  cross, 
Or  witnessing  thy  bursting  from  the  tomb. 

Then,  briefly,  he  sums  up  the  mystery  of  his  being, 
in  the  pregnant  description  : 

He  who  trod, 
Very  man  and  very  God, 
The  earth  in  v/eakness,  shame,  and  pain. 

Man  he  studies  as  no  poet  in  the  century  has  studied 
him.  He  sees  in  him  an  ''  imprisoned  splendor,"  and 
declares  that  nowhere  is  God  more  really  present  than 

in  the  human  heart  : 

God  .  .  .  dwells  in  all, 
From  life's  minute  beginnings,  up  at  last 
To  man — the  consummation  of  this  scheme 
Of  being,  the  completion  of  this  sphere 
Of  life. 

Moreover,  in  him  he  discovers  what  he  calls  the  "great 
beacon-light  God  sets  in  all": 

The  worst  man  upon  earth  ,  .  . 
Be  sure,  he  knows,  in  his  conscience,  more 
Of  what  right  is,  than  arrives  at  birth 
In  the  best  man's  acts  that  we  bow  before  ; 
This  last  knows  better — true,  but  my  fact  is, 
'Tis  one  thing  to  know,  and  another  to  practise. 

While  he  often  discourses  on  deflections  from  the 
light  of  conscience  and  on  the  working  of  sin  and  pain, 
he  is  no  pessimist.     He  declares  : 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  1 63 

This  world  no  blot  for  us, 
Nor  blank  ;  it  means  intensely,  and  means  good. 

He  further  says  : 

Life  is  probation,  and  the  earth  no  goal 

But  starting-point  of  man  :   compel  him  to  strive, 

Which  means,  in  man,  as  good  as  reach  the  goal. 

Hence  it  is  that  he  finds  a  legitimate  and  beneficent 
place  for  temptation  in  the  world  : 

Why  comes  temptation,  but  for  man  to  meet 
And  master  and  make  crouch  beneath  his  foot, 
And  so  be  pedestaled  in  triumph  ?     Pray 
"  Lead  us  into  no  such  temptations.  Lord  !" 
Yea,  but,  O  Thou  whose  servants  are  the  bold. 
Lead  such  temptations  by  the  head  and  hair. 
Reluctant  dragons,  up  to  who  dares  fight, 
That  so  he  may  do  battle  and  have  praise. 

To  one  who  in  this  way  interprets  the  biiffetings  of 
evil  and  who  believes  that  "  all  things  shall  work  together 
for  our  good,"  there  can  be  no  dread  of  the  last  conflict. 
We  are  not,  therefore,  surprised  to  hear  Browning,  in 
"Prospice,"  exclaiming  : 

I  was  ever  a  fighter,  so — one  fight  more, 

The  best  and  the  last ! 
I  would  hate  that  death  bandage  my  eyes, 

And  bade  me  creep  past. 
No  !  let  me  taste  the  whole  of  it,  fare  like  my  peers. 

The  heroes  of  old. 

There  are  various  poems  among  his  writings  which 
deal  with  different  aspects  of  religious  life,  that  take  up 
the  question  of  immortality  and  of  duty.     They  are  all 


164      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

marked  by  the  most  earnest  desire  to  deliver  the  race 
from  bondage  to  the  carnal  and  the  earthy,  and  in  one 
poem — "Christmas  Eve" — ecclesiasticism  and  the  re- 
stricting and  parochial  conceptions  of  Christianity  are 
swept  away,  and  the  reader  sees  that  Christ  may  be 
found  in  the  German  professor's  workshop  as  well  as  in 
the  stately  Basilica  at  Rome,  or  in  the  humble  dissent- 
ing chapel.  What  then?  Is  he  inculcating  indiffer- 
ence ?  Not  at  all.  He  shows  that  true  religion  is 
not  bound  up  with  and  made  valid  by  certain  sacerdotal 
edifices  and  rites.  As  Frothingham  interprets  the  moral 
of  the  dramatic  poem,  we  are  to  learn 

Not  to  despise  the  bald  service  and  the  poor  talk,  but  to  see  in 
the  one  a  helpful  worship,  and  in  the  other  a  divine  message — 
living  water,  though  with  a  taste  of  earthy  matter.  The  very 
simplicity  seems  best  as  casting  earthly  aids  behind  and  letting 
"God's  all  in  all  serene  show  with  the  thinnest  human  veil  be- 
tween." And  the  poor  congregation,  offensive  before,  now  seem 
to  witness  to  the  justice  of  his  conclusion  by  the  fact  that,  being 
as  they  are,  they  are  helped  and  bettered  by  their  faith.  ^ 

In  these  various  ways,  the  prophetism  of  Browning 
reveals  itself  as  strikingly  spiritual  and  as  distinctively 
Christian.  It  advances  farther  than  that  of  Wordsworth 
and  is  not  exactly  paralleled  in  the  literature  of  other 
lands. 

If  Tennyson  were  gifted  with  the  spirit  of  the  seer, 
it  failed  to  reveal  itself  in  theology  ;  for  even  ^'  In  Me- 
moriam,"  though  a  unique  production  of  almost  unex- 
ampled melody,  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  unfolding  of 
Christian  truth;  while  in  the  ''Christ  that  is  to  be"  he 
seems  rather  to  have  contemplated  him  as  incarnated 

*  "  Studies  in  Poetry,"  of  Robert  Browning,  pp.  210,  212. 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  I65 

in  "the  larger  man  and  free  "than  in  some  new  and 
more  striking  exposition  of  his  character  and  mission. 
Prophetism  disclosed  itself  in  his  works  along  other 
lines  than  these,  as  we  shall  see  later  on. 

In  France  it  seems  rather  to  avoid  theology  than  to 
court  it,  and  in  the  writers  of  America  it  does  not 
attain  the  expression  to  which  it  is  entitled.  This  is  not 
saying  that  it  has  had  no  expression  at  all.  We  have 
our  Walt  Whitman,  with  his  incoherent  splendor,  called 
''the  poet  of  immortality,"  who  feels  and  talks  about 
the  powers  of  unseen  worlds.  What  more  in  the  pro- 
phetic style  than  his  rhapsodical  vision  of  the  future  : 

See  ever  so  far,  there  is  limidess  space  outside  of  that, 
Count  ever  so  much,  there  is  limitless  time  around  that. 

My  rendezvous  is  appointed,  it  is  certain. 
My  Lord  will  be  there  and  wait  till  I  come  on  perfect  terms, 
The  great  Camarado,  the  lover  true  for  whom  I  pine  will  be  there. 

And  then  there  is  Whittier,  in  his  own  quiet  way  as 
tender  as  Jeremiah,  as  seraphic  as  Isaiah,  discoursing 
on  eternal  mysteries  in  tones  that  charm  and  yet  sub- 
due. None  more  spiritual  than  he  in  the  great  world 
of  letters,  and  none  who  has  done  more  to  aid  the  soul 
in  asserting  its  freedom.  A  few  illustrations  of  the 
thoughts  that  entered  into  his  religious  views  are  wor- 
thy of  citation  here  : 

All  is  of  God  that  is,  and  is  to  be  ; 

And  God  is  good.      Let  this  suffice  us  still, 

Resting  in  childlike  trust  upon  his  will 

Who  moves  to  his  great  ends  unthwarted  by  the  ilL 

But  still  my  human  hands  are  weak 
To  hold  your  iron  creeds  : 


l66      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Against  the  words  ye  bid  me  speak 

My  heart  within  me  pleads. 
Who  fathoms  the  eternal  thought  ? 

Who  talks  of  scheme  and  plan  ? 
The  Lord  is  God  !     He  needeth  not 

The  poor  device  of  man. 
I  walk  with  bare,  hushed  feet  the  ground 

Ye  tread  with  boldness  shod  ; 
I  dare  not  fix  with  mete  and  bound 

The  love  and  power  of  God. 


Not  mine  to  look  where  cherubim 

And  seraphs  may  not  see, 
But  nothing  can  be  good  in  him 

Which  evil  is  in  me. 

And  hears  unmoved  the  old  creeds  babble  still 

Of  kingly  power  and  dread  caprice  of  will, 

Chary  of  blessing,  prodigal  of  curse, 

The  pitiless  doomsman  of  the  universe. 

Can  Hatred  ask  for  love  ?     Can  Selfishness 

Invite  to  self-denial  ?     Is  he  less 

Than  man  in  kindly  dealing  ?     Can  he  break 

His  own  great  law  of  fatherhood,  forsake 

And  curse  his  children  ?     Not  for  earth  or  heaven 

Can  separate  tables  of  the  law  be  given. 

No  rule  can  bind  which  he  himself  denies  ; 

The  truths  of  time  are  not  eternal  lies. 

He  who  is,  in  a  distinctive  sense,  called  the  *'  Seer," 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  in  terms  of  equal  breadth,  when 
formulating  his  own  belief,  outlines  the  transcendental 
ideals  which  have  been  striving  in  vain  for  general  rec- 
ognition. Their  failure,  however,  to  inspire  confidence 
arises  from  their  disregard  of  those  foundations  on 
which  human  reason   seeks  to  build  its  religion.     He 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  1 6/ 

gives  US  magnificent  cloud  effects,  while  denying  that 
there  is  an  ocean  whence  their  substance  has  been  de- 
rived ;  he  delights  us  with  the  silvery  sheen  of  starlight 
on  the  river,  while  declaring  that  the  river  is,  in  reality, 
superfluous  ;  and  he  charms  us  by  proposing  to  rescue 
the  spiritual  nature  of  man  from  ''the  wooden  stocks  of 
tradition" — a  deliverance  in  everyway  desirable — while 
he  does  not  think  it  necessary  to  furnish  its  pinions 
with  a  spiritual  atmosphere  sufficiently  dense  to  sustain 
its  freedom.  But,  still,  in  an  age  when  logic  may  be 
greatly  overdone,  and  when  mechanical  theories  of 
every  kind  may  acquire  undue  influence,  it  is  refreshing 
to  read  Emerson  and  be  swept  away  by  his  splendid 
abandon.  Thus,  though  we  cannot  agree  with  his  ne- 
gations, we  are  lifted  up  by  his  sublime  assurances 
when  he  writes  : 

I  believe  the  Christian  religion  to  be  profoundly  true — true  to 
an  extent  that  they  who  are  styled  the  most  orthodox  defenders 
have  never,  or  but  in  rarest  glimpses,  once  or  twice  in  a  lifetime, 
reached.  I  am  for  the  principles  ;  they  are  for  the  man.  They 
reckon  me  unbelieving  ;  I,  with  better  reason,  them.  They  mag- 
nify inspiration,  miracles,  mediatorship,  the  Trinity,  baptism,  the 
eucharist.  I  let  them  all  drop  in  sight  of  the  glorious  beauty  of 
those  inward  laws  or  harmonies  which  ravished  the  eyes  of  Jesus, 
of  Socrates,  of  Plato,  of  Dante,  of  Milton,  of  George  Fox,  of  Swe- 
denborg.  With  regard  to  the  miracles  ascribed  to  Jesus,  I  sup- 
pose he  wrought  them.  If  (which  has  not  yet  been  done)  it  should 
be  shown  that  the  account  of  his  miracles  is  only  the  addition  of 
credulous  and  mistaking  love,  I  should  be  well  content  to  lose 
them.  Indeed,  I  should  be  glad.  No  person  capable  of  per- 
ceiving the  force  of  spiritual  truth  but  must  see  that  the  doctrines 
of  the  teacher  lose  no  more  by  this  than  the  law  of  gravity  would 
lose  if  certain  facts  alleged  to  have  taken  place  did  not  take 
place.   .    .    Now  in  every  country  the  spiritual  nature  of  man  re- 


1 68      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

fuses  any  longer  to  be  holden  in  the  wooden  stocks  of  tradition, 
and  insists  that  what  is  called  Christianity  shall  take  front  rank, 
not  formal  or  peculiar,  but  strictly  on  its  universal  merits,  as  one 
act  out  of  many  acts  of  the  human  mind. 

But  it  were  erroneous,  from  the  prominence  we  have 
given  to  the  religious  teachings  of  our  nineteenth  cen- 
tury seers,  to  straightway  conchide  that  ancient  proph- 
etism  was  exclusively  or  pre-eminently  theological.  The 
old  prophets  were  not  professors  ;  they  were  reformers. 
They  were  undoubtedly  inspired  by  the  truth,  and  cher- 
ished the  truth,  and  never,  in  their  greatest  enthusiasm, 
reached  that  degree  of  intellectual  inanity  which  per- 
ceives no  practical  difference  in  value  between  truth 
and  error ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  their  chief  business 
was  to  render  that  truth  operative  in  actual  life. 
Through  visions  of  coming  good,  through  denunciations 
of  existing  evil,  and  by  the  most  faithful  and  pungent 
preaching  of  righteousness  to  awaken  the  conscience, 
they  labored  for  national  regeneration,  stability,  and 
progress.  They  were  optimists  and  encouraged  the 
people  in  expectations  of  a  final  reign  of  peace  and 
purity.  Of  the  future,  they  never  despaired,  and  noth- 
ing doubted  but  that  God  would,  in  the  coming  time, 
set  his  king  on  the  holy  hill  of  Zion.  The  more  vividly 
they  realized  the  divine  purpose  in  human  exaltation 
and  happiness,  the  more  ardently  and  impetuously  they 
labored  for  its  fulfillment.  Hence,  almost  with  the  same 
breath  in  which  they  announced  their  visions  of  human 
brotherhood  and  beatitude,  they  held  up  to  withering 
scorn  and  contempt  apostate  priests,  cruel  and  contu- 
macious kings,  and  pronounced  the  curse  of  heaven  on 
fields  and  vineyards  and  on  horses  and  chariots  which 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  1 69 

had  been  conscripted  by  tyranny  to  serve  the  cause  of 
oppression. 

These  men  were  not  mere  ''socialists  of  the  chair"  ; 
they  were  not  theorists  ;  they  were  not  theological  sys- 
tem-builders ;  neither  were  they  speculative  religious 
dreamers.  They  were  moral  heroes,  governed  by  com- 
manding spiritual  conceptions  and  aflame  with  zeal  for 
the  salvation  of  Israel.  They  warned,  rebuked,  en- 
treated ;  they  exposed  the  sins  and  perils  of  the  nation ; 
they  fearlessly  foretold  impending  calamities  and  pointed 
out  the  way  of  escape  to  rulers  and  their  advisers  ;  and 
in  the  ears  of  their  contemporaries  they  constantly 
sounded  the  sweet  assurance  of  better  times,  and,  in 
many  a  sweet-cadenced  prophecy  exclaimed  : 

All  hail  !     The  age  of  crime  and  suffering  ends  ; 
The  reign  of  righteousness  from  heaven  descends  ; 
Vengeance  forever  sheaths  the  afflicting  sword  ; 
Death  is  destroyed  and  Paradise  restored  ; 
Man,  rising  from  the  ruins  of  his  fall, 
Is  one  with  God,  and  God  is  All  in  all.^ 

Nor  have  their  successors  in  this  respect  altogether 
failed  to  catch  their  spirit.  The  prophetism  of  our  own 
day,  while  constantly  tending  toward  spiritual  views  of 
religion,  occasionally  inclining  toward  indefiniteness  and 
vagueness,  has  been  remarkable  for  its  deep  horror  of 
public  and  private  infamies,  its  clear  discernment  that 
things  cannot  continue  as  they  are,  its  sympathy  with 
the  social  aims  of  the  age,  and  for  its  belief  in  the  final 
triumph  of  human  brotherhood.  Of  those  who  repre- 
sent this  phase  of  modern  prophetism,  there  is  no  figure 


James  Montgomery. 


I/O      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

more  interesting,  picturesque,  and  commanding  than 
that  of  Thomas  Carlyle.  Of  his  theological  opinions 
little  need  be  said.  He  was  born  in  Calvinism  and  in- 
herited Calvinism,  and  in  his  revolt  from  the  doctrine  of 
his  sires  it  was  almost  impossible  for  him  to  escape  from 
Calvinism  ;  but  his  theology,  in  the  main,  was  incoherent 
and  turbulent,  like  his  rhetoric,  and  was  mostly  of  the 
negative  type,  but  was  strongly  and  persistently  op- 
posed to  materialism,  or,  as  he  termed  it,  "mud  phi- 
losophies." What  a  whirlwind  and  torrent  of  emotion 
there  is  in  his  ''Eternities,"  "Immensities,"  "Silences," 
and  in  his  apocalyptic  speech  about  religion  : 

The  universe  is  made  by  law — the  great  Soul  of  the  world  is 
just  and  not  unjust.  .  .  Rituals,  liturgies,  credos,  Sinai  thunder, 
I  know  more  or  less  of  the  history  of  those — the  rise,  progress, 
decline,  and  fall  of  these.  Can  thunder  from  the  thirty-two 
Azimuths  repeated  daily  for  centuries  of  years  make  God's  laws 
more  godlike  to  me  ?  Brother,  no  !  Revelation,  inspiration,  yes 
and  thy  own  God-created  soul  ;  dost  thou  not  call  that  a  revelation  ? 
Who  made  thee  ?  Where  didst  thou  come  from  ?  The  voice  of 
eternity,  if  thou  be  not  a  blasphemer  and  poor  asphyxied  mute, 
speaks  with  that  tongue  of  thine.  Thou  art  the  latest  book  of 
nature  ;  it  is  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty  giveth  thee  under- 
standing, my  brother,  my  brother.^ 

Bewildering  and  extravagant  as  such  a  fantasia  may 
sound,  there  underlies  it  and  runs  through  it  the  note 
which  is  the  key  to  much  that  is  now  being  attempted 
in  social  reform — the  incalculable  dignity  of  humanity. 
Mr.  Froude  writes  interestingly  about  Carlyle,  refers 
repeatedly  to  his  "  creed,"  regards  him  as  prophet  and 
teacher,  whose  words  were  "like  the  morning  reveille" 


Past  and  Present,"  pp.  307-309. 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  I/I 

to  searchers  after  truth,  and  whose  hifluence  has  saved 
him  from  positivism,  Romanism,  and  atheism  ;  but  he 
discloses  to  us  nothing  in  his  teachings  more  startling 
and  revolutionary  than  the  high  estimate  he  placed  on 
man :  ''  God  not  only  made  us,  and  beholds  us,  but  is  in 
us  and  around  us.  The  age  of  miracles,  as  it  ever  was, 
now  is.  .  .  This  is  the  high  gospel  begun  to  be  preached  ; 
man  is  still  man."^  Of  this  gospel  as  understood  by  the 
Scotch  sage,  was  born  the  ever-memorable  "  Sartor  Re- 
sartus,"  a  book  that  comes  to  us  like  a  phantasmagoria, 
mirage,  or  mystical  dream,  in  which  we  recognize  Ti- 
tanic revolutionary  forces,  and  in  which  the  reverence 
for  honest  toil  transmitted  after  weary  centuries  from 
Langland  to  Wordsworth  at  last  finds  sympathetic 
and  whimsically  tragic  expression.  "  Hardly  entreated 
brother!"  he  writes,  "for  us  was  thy  back  so  bent  ;  for 
us  were  thy  straight  limbs  and  fingers  so  deformed  ; 
thou  wert  our  conscript  on  whom  the  lot  fell,  and  fight- 
ing our  battles  wert  so  marred."  Pathetic  portrait  this, 
which  has  found  artistic  counterpart  in  "  The  Angelus," 
and  poetic  embodiment  in  Markham's  "  The  Man  with 
the  Hoe"  : 

How  will  you  ever  straighten  up  this  shape, 
Touch  it  again  with  immortahty  ; 
Give  back  the  upward  looking  and  the  light  ; 
Rebuild  in  it  the  music  and  the  dreams  ; 
Make  right  the  immemorial  infamies, 
Perfidious  wrongs,  immedicable  woes  ? 

Carlyle  continues  : 

Two  men  I  honor  and  no  third  :  first,  the  toil-worn  craftsman 
that  with  earth-made  implement  laboriously  conquers  the  earth 

1  "Characteristics." 


1/2      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  makes  her  man's.  .  .  A  second  man  I  honor,  and  still  more 
highly  :  him  who  is  seen  toiling  for  the  spiritually  indispensable  ; 
not  daily  bread,  but  the  bread  of  life.  It  is  not  because  of  his 
toils  that  I  lament  for  the  poor  ;  we  must  all  toil  or  steal  (howso- 
ever we  name  our  stealing),  which  is  worse.  .  .  But  what  I  do 
mourn  over  is  that  the  lamp  of  his  soul  should  go  out  ;  that  no 
ray  of  heavenly  or  even  earthly  knowledge  should  visit  him  ;  but 
only  in  the  haggard  darkness,  like  two  spectres,  fear  and  indigna- 
tion bear  him  company.  Alas,  while  the  body  stands  so  broad 
and  brawny,  must  the  soul  lie  blinded,  dwarfed,  stupefied,  almost 
annihilated  ?  Alas,  was  this  too  a  breath  of  God  bestowed  in 
heaven  but  on  earth  never  to  be  unfolded  ?  .  .  Do  we  wonder  at 
French  revolutions,  Chartisms,  revolts  of  three  days  ?  The  times, 
if  we  will  consider  them,  are  really  unexampled. 

And  yet  these  were  the  days  when  Macaulay  could 
felicitate  England  on  her  wonderful  progress ;  when 
"  Sheffield  was  sending  forth  its  admirable  knives,  razors, 
and  lancets  to  the  farthest  ends  of  the  world."  The 
elegant  essayist  seemed  unconscious  of  a  new  ''  Iliad  " 
being  enacted  at  the  very  center  of  civilization,  one 
more  grimy,  filthy,  crushing,  and  disastrous,  and  one  less 
heroic,  thrilling,  and  inspiring  than  that  of  Troy.  But 
our  prophet  is  not  without  hope.  Paradise  must  follow 
the  day  of  judgment.  Social  cosmos  must  surely  suc- 
ceed the  social  chaos.  Hence,  as  though  controlled 
by  the  same  spirit  that  made  the  isle  of  Patmos  a  very 
urim  and  tJuimmini  of  illumination,  he  exclaims  : 

In  that  fire  whirlwind,  creation  and  destruction  proceed  to- 
gether ;  ever,  as  the  ashes  of  the  old  are  blown  about,  do  organic 
filaments  of  the  new  mysteriously  spin  themselves  ;  and  amid  the 
rushing  and  the  waving  of  the  whirlwind  element  come  tones  of 
melodious  death-song  which  end  not  but  in  tones  of  a  more 
melodious  birth-song.  Nay,  look  into  the  fire-whirlwind  with 
thine  own  eyes,  and  thou  wilt  see. 


THE  SEERS  AND  SAGES  1/3 

One  who  did  thus  look  was  John  Ruskin,  who,  when 
Carlyle  was  indicting  modern  society,  was  quietly  com- 
posing his  eloquent  interpretations  of  the  beautiful. 
The  world  was  charmed  by  the  "Seven  Lamps  of 
Architecture,"  "  The  Stones  of  Venice,"  and  "  Modern 
Painters,"  though  it  was  suspicious  of  their  religious 
tone.  Still,  there  was  no  thought,  apparently,  that  the 
great  art  critic  would  in  the  end  become  a  prophet  of 
the  living  God,  an  Elisha  to  Carlyle's  Elijah,  on  whom 
the  mantle  of  the  Scottish  seer  would  fall.  Yet  even 
this  surprise  was  in  store  for  the  age  ;  nor  was  the 
transition  so  astounding  when  the  religious  temper, 
faith,  and  education  of  the  man  are  taken  into  consid- 
eration. When  we  recall  him  as  he  has  revealed  him- 
self in  his  personal  allusions,  we  are  reminded  of  what 
he  wrote  regarding  the  interior  of  St.  Mark's.  As  the 
heavy  doors  open  and  we  enter  the  sacred  edifice,  he 
writes  :  "  It  is  the  cross  that  is  first  seen,  and  always 
burning  in  the  center  of  the  temple  ;  and  every  dome 
and  hollow  of  its  roof  has  the  figure  of  Christ  in  the 
utmost  height  of  it,  raised  in  power  or  returning  in 
judgment."  When  we  draw  near  to  Ruskin,  and  when 
we  draw  aside  the  curtain  and  look  into  his  soul,  we  see 
there  the  cross.  The  man  is  himself  San  Marco,  only 
"greater  than  the  temple,"  and  his  chief  glory  is  that 
his  thought,  emotion,  purpose,  are  influenced  by  the 
cross  and  reveal  the  cross  at  almost  every  stage  of  their 
manifestation.      Concerning  the  Bible,  he  writes  : 

It  is  a  creed  with  a  great  part  of  the  existing  English-speaking 
people  that  they  are  in  possession  of  a  book  which  tells  them 
straight  from  the  lips  of  God  all  they  ought  to  do  and  need  to 
know.      I  have  read  that  book  with  as  much  care  as  most  of  them 


174      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

for  some  forty  years,  and  am  thankful  that  on  those  who  trust  it  I 
can  press  its  pleadings.  My  endeavor  has  been  uniformly  to 
make  them  trust  it  more  deeply  than  they  do  ;  trust  it,  not  in  the 
favorite  verses  only,  but  in  the  sum  of  all  ;  trust  it,  not  as  a  fetich 
or  talisman,  which  they  are  to  be  saved  by  daily  repetitions  of, 
but  as  a  captain's  order,  to  be  heard  and  obeyed  at  their  peril. 

Then,  having  defined  the  creed,  he  proceeds  to  show 
in  what  manner  it  should  be  used  : 

Right  faith  of  man  is  not  intended  to  give  him  repose,  but  to 
enable  him  to  do  his  work.  It  is  not  intended  that  he  should 
look  away  from  the  place  he  lives  in  now  and  cheer  himself  with 
thoughts  of  the  place  he  is  to  live  in  next,  but  that  he  should  look 
stoutly  into  this  world,  trusting  that  if  he  does  his  work  thoroughly 
here  some  good  .  .  .  will  come  of  it  hereafter.  This  kind  of 
brave  faith  I  perceive  to  be  always  rewarded  with  clear,  practical 
success  and  splendid  intellectual  power,  while  the  faith  which 
dwells  on  the  future  fades  away  into  rosy  mist  and  emptiness  of 
musical  air. 

That  he  would  have  it  operative  in  daily  affairs  is 
made  quite  clear  when,  in  addressing  a  lady  of  fashion, 
he  urges  her  to  try  ''God's  fashions  occasionally,"  as  the 
oriecinal  Creator  of  the  beautiful  ''will  be  found  to  have 
as  good  taste  as  any  modiste  known."  He  then  quaintly 
suggests  to  her  that,  in  planning  the  next  party,  she 
shall  imagine  that  Christ,  being  still  here  in  the  body, 
has  just  sent  word  that  he  will  be  one  of  the  guests,  and 
that  he  wants  to  meet  exactly  the  party  she  has  invited, 
and  no  other.  Ruskin  then  requests  her  to  "  consider 
who  is  to  sit  next  Christ  on  the  other  side,  who  oppo- 
site, and  so  on  ;  finally,  consider  a  little  what  you  will 
talk  about,  supposing,  which  is  just  possible,  that  Christ 
should  tell  you  to  go  on  talking  as  if  he  were  not  there." 
Can  we  readily  picture  to  ourselves  the  constraint  of 


THE  SEERS  AND  SAGES  175 

the  guests  ?  and  do  we  not  perceive  a  certain  incon- 
gruity in  introducing  the  Master  to  a  modern  banquet, 
and  in  attempting  to  make  onr  Jin  de  sicclc  banqueters  at 
ease  with  Christ  ?  And,  yet,  what  is  there  so  strange 
in  the  companionship  after  all  ?  Does  not  the  seeming 
grotesqueness  of  the  situation  arise  from  the  actual 
antagonism  of  modern  society  to  the  spirit  of  Jesus  ? 
They  are  not  in  accord,  and  are  radically  antipathetical. 
This,  the  religious  nature  of  Ruskin  keenly  realized, 
and,  in  feeling  it  as  he  did  and  in  expressing  it  in  such 
terms  as  he  employed,  he  gave  proof  that  it  was  from 
the  cross  he  had  received  his  religious  life.  Only  from 
such  a  source  could  have  been  born  the  sympathy  which 
he  cannot  conceal  when  he  voices  the  plaint  and  com- 
plaint of  the  desolate:  ''The  ant  and  moth  have  cells 
for  each  of  their  young,  but  our  little  ones  lie  in  fester- 
ing heaps,  in  homes  that  consume  them  like  graves  ; 
and  night  by  night,  from  the  corners  of  our  streets, 
rises  up  the  cry  of  the  homeless :  '  I  was  a  stranger,  and 
ye  took  me  not  in.'  " 

It  is  probable  that,  in  the  preparation  of  the  second 
volume  of  ''Modern  Painters,"  John  Ruskin  had  mis- 
givings whether  he  was  doing  the  exact  work  Christ 
had  placed  him  in  the  world  to  accomplish.  When  in 
that  book  he  raises  the  question  whether  the  contem- 
plation and  enjoyment  of  beauty  have  any  right  to 
absorb  us  in  a  world  of  pain,  the  spirit  of  prophetism 
is  being  born  in  his  soul.  This  first  suspicion  led  him 
much  farther  and  ended  in  this  more  serious  conclusion, 
which  might  have  fallen  from  the  lips  of  an  Isaiah  : 

Consider  whether,  even  supposing  it  guiltless,  luxury  would  be 
desired  by  any  of  us  if  we  saw  clearly  at  our  side  the  misery  which 


176      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

accompanies  it  in  the  world.  Luxury  is  indeed  possible  in  the 
future — innocent  and  exquisite  ;  luxury  for  all,  and  by  the  help 
of  all  ;  but  luxury  at  present  can  only  be  enjoyed  by  the  ignorant ; 
the  crudest  man  living  could  not  sit  at  this  feast  unless  he  sat 
blindfold. 

These  grave  and  comprehensive  words  are  from 
"  Unto  This  Last,"  which,  with  his  "  Political  Economy 
of  Art,"  and  "Munera  Pulvcris,''  affords  us  an  idea  of 
how  he  understood  his  new  vocation.  It  is  his  distinc- 
tion among  Englishmen,  as  it  is  that  of  Tolstoy  among 
Russians,  to  be  foremost,  if  not  the  first,  in  insisting 
on  the  application  of  Christian  laws  to  commerce  and 
to  industry.  This,  we  gather  from  his  various  books  on 
sociological  subjects  and  from  that  extraordinary  medley 
entitled  '' Fors  Clavigera,''  which  he  addressed  to  British 
workmen.  These  volumes  are  full  of  beautiful  passages 
and  of  sound  thought  in  defense  of  the  position  that  it 
is  the  supreme  end  of  civilization  to  produce  manhood 
and  maintain  it  in  happiness.  "  It  is  open  to  serious 
question,  which  I  leave  to  the  reader's  pondering, 
whether,  among  national  manufacturers,  that  of  souls 
of  a  good  quality  may  not  at  last  turn  out  a  quite  lead- 
ingly  lucrative  one."  ''There  is  no  wealth  but  life; 
life,  including  all  its  powers  of  love,  of  joy,  and  of 
admiration.  That  country  is  the  richest  which  nour- 
ishes the  greatest  number  of  noble  and  happy  human 
beings;  that  man  is  richest  who,  having  perfected  the 
functions  of  his  own  life  to  the  utmost,  has  also  the 
widest  influence,  both  personal  and  by  means  of  his 
possessions,  over  the  lives  of  others."  Hence,  the  com- 
monplace inference  from  these  premises  are  :  *'  What- 
ever our  station  in  life  may  be,  at  this  crisis  those  of  us 


THE   SEERS    AND    SAGES  1 77 

who  mean  to  fulfill  our  duty  ought,  first,  to  live  on  as 
little  as  we  can,  and,  secondly,  to  do  all  the  wholesome 
work  for  it  we  can,  and  to  spend  all  we  can  spare  in 
doing  all  the  sure  good  we  can.  And  sure  good  is, 
first,  in  feeding  people;  then,  in  dressing  people;  then, 
in  lodging  people ;  and,  lastly,  in  rightly  pleasing  people, 
with  arts  or  sciences  or  any  other  subject  of  thought." 
Quite  after  the  Christian  manner  is  the  doctrine  of  this 
prophet,  summed  up,  as  it  may  be,  in  the  aphorism, 
"  There  is  no  wealth  but  life."  This  judgment  places 
man  in  his  true  position  and  opens  up  an  economical 
science  in  which  the  interests  of  manhood,  and  not  the 
accumulation  of  money  as  capital,  become  the  prime 
object  and  concern.  It  is  only  a  new  way  of  stating 
what  Christ  solemnly  declared  :  ''The  life  is  more  than 
meat  and  the  body  than  raiment."  And  not  until  this 
teaching  becomes  the  organizing  principle  of  society 
can  we  expect  any  very  remarkable  change  for  the 
better.  This  is  the  germ  of  a  new  civilization.  It  is 
the  seed  of  a  purer  age,  one  in  which  the  race  will  not 
only  be  enfranchised  from  original  bestiality,  and  sub- 
lunary happiness  cease  being  the  vassal  of  commercial 
vicissitude,  but  when  men  will  be  too  strong  to  be  made 
the  tools  of  selfish  greed  and  too  brave  to  become  the 
slaves  of  corporate  tyranny,  and  when  "the  gathering 
blackness  of  the  frown  of  God  "  shall  forever  be  dis- 
pelled. Until  then,  let  us  ''remember,"  as  Thomas 
Hardy  admonishes  us,  "that  the  best  and  greatest 
among  mankind  are  those  who  do  themselves  no  worldly 
good.  Every  successful  man  is  more  or  less  a  selfish 
man.     The  devoted  fail." 

Literature  has  given  to  the  modern  world  other  pro- 

M 


178      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

phetic  voices  than  those  whose  masterful  eloquence  has 
thus  far  challenged  our  admiration.  They  sound  forth 
in  different  tongues  and  in  various  lands,  and  yet  their 
message  is  substantially  the  same.  Nor  will  it  do  to 
classify  them  as  the  voices  of  the  ''minor  prophets"  ; 
for,  among  them,  we  can  hear  the  speech  of  a  Tolstoy, 
of  a  Victor  Hugo,  of  a  Lamennais,  of  a  Lowell,  of  a 
Shelley,  of  a  Burns,  of  a  Longfellow,  of  a  Howells,  of  a 
William  Morris,  of  a  Julia  Ward  Howe,  of  a  Harriet 
Beecher  Stowe,  and  of  a  Heine,  who  declares,  as  though 
speaking  for  them  all,  that  "  the  great  work  of  our  age 
is  emancipation." 

The  century  opened  with  the  immortal  Marseillaise  of 
humanity,  *' A  man's  a  man  for  a'  that!"  from  the 
heart  of  Robert  Burns,  awakening  hope  in  the  millions 
and  re-echoing  in  the  verse  of  Shelley : 

They  know  that  never  joy  illumed  my  brow, 
Unhnked  with  hope  that  thou  wouldst  free 
The  world  from  its  dark  slavery. 

From  this  time,  even  the  proud  and  noble  began  to  feel 
an  interest  in  what  Gray  terms  "  The  short  and  simple 
annals  of  the  poor"  ;  and  Tennyson  translates  for  us 
the  meaning  that  stirs  through  them  all  and  the  direc- 
tion toward  which  they  point  : 

And  we  shall  sit  at  endless  feast, 
Enjoying  each  the  other's  good  : 
What  vaster  dream  can  hit  the  mood 
Of  love  on  earth  ? 

Nor  can  all  the  evils  he  takes  note  of  with  advancing 
years  induce  him  to  abandon  the 


THE  SEERS  AND  SAGES  1/9 

Golden  dream 
Of  knowledge  fusing  class  with  class, 

Of  civic  hate  no  more  to  be, 
Of  love  to  leaven  all  the  mass 

Till  every  soul  be  free. 

Neither  can  the  inequalities  of  our  times  daunt  the 
brave  heart  of  William  Morris ;  and  he  gives  expression 
to  his  confidence  in  the  "  Dream  of  John  Ball,"  the 
famous  Lollard  preacher,  who  demanded  the  rights 
secured  to  the  people  by  Magna  Charta  :  "John  Ball, 
be  of  good  cheer  ;  for  once  more  thou  knowest  as  I 
know,  that  the  fellowship  of  men  shall  endure,  however 
many  tribulations  it  may  have  to  wear  through." 

American  literature  is  likewise  loyal  to  this  faith. 
Emerson  heralds  the  dignity  and  independence  of  the 
individual 

Another  sign  of  our  times  is  the  new  importance  given  to  the 
single  person.  .  .  Is  it  not  the  chief  disgrace  in  the  world  not  to 
be  a  unit  ;  not  to  be  reckoned  one  character  ;  not  to  yield  that 
peculiar  fruit  which  each  man  was  created  to  bear,  but  to  be 
reckoned  in  the  gross  .  .  .  and  our  opinion  predicted  geographi- 
cally, as  the  north  or  the  south.  Not  so,  brothers  and  friends — 
please  God,  ours  shall  not  be  so.  We  will  walk  on  our  own  feet ; 
we  will  work  with  our  own  hands  ;  we  will  speak  our  own  minds. 
...  A  nation  of  men  will  for  the  first  time  exist,  because  each 
believes  himself  inspired  by  the  Divine  Soul  which  also  inspires 
all  men.^ 

But  the  conscious  greatness  of  the  individual  must 
be  followed  by  the  unity  of  the  whole  ;  for  the  sense 
of  equality  must  precede  the  realization  of  fraternity. 
There  can  be  no  brotherhood  between  the  man  and  the 

*  "American  Scholar." 


l80      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tiger,  and  there  can  be  none  where  there  is  a  difference 
insisted  on  between  men  as  men  ;  but  when  it  is  per- 
ceived that  while  they  may  be  unequal  in  strength, 
health,  mind,  and  estate,  they  are  essentially  one  in 
nature  and  necessarily  one  in  rights  before  the  law, 
then  the  way  will  be  clear  for  the  *'  parliament  of  man, 
the  federation  of  the  world."  That  this  consumma- 
tion is  hastening  fast,  Walt  Whitman  is  assured,  and 
strengthens  our  faith  in  his  own  prophetic  fashion: 

"What  whispers  are  these,  O  lands,  running  ahead 

of  you,  passing  under  the  sea  ? 
Are  all  nations  communing  ?     Is  there  going  to  be 

but  one  heart  to  the  globe  ? 

And  in  answering  in  the  affirmative,  and  in  anticipating 
the  objection  that  such  expectations  are  only  optimistic 
illusions,  he  cries  : 

Is  it  a  dream  ? 
Nay,  but  the  lack  of  it  the  dream, 
And  failing  it,  life' s  love  and  wealth  a  dream, 
And  all  the  world  a  dream. 

From  the  convictions  born  of  the  Bible  and  confirmed 
by  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  which  early  flow- 
ered into  Emerson's  prose  and  later  in  Whitman's  verse, 
there  emanated  much  of  that  great  literature  which  was 
largely  instrumental  in  breaking  the  shackles  of  the 
slave  in  North  America.  For  Lowell,  for  Longfellow, 
for  Bronson  Alcott,  for  Whittier,  and  their  fellows,  as 
well  as  for  Garrison  and  Phillips,  humanity  should  give 
thanks ;  and  we  should  all  be  grateful  that  through 
them  the  solemn  oath  was  registered  which  in  God's 
providence  has  been  even  more  solemnly  ratified  : 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  l8l 

But  for  us  and  for  our  children,  the  vow  which  we  have  given 
For  freedom  and  humanity  is  registered  in  heaven  ; 
No  slave-hunt  in  our  borders — no  pirate  on  our  strand  ! 
No  fetters  in  the  Bay  State — no  slave  upon  our  land  ! 

That  infamy  removed,  prophetic  voices  in  our  country 
are  now  sadly  hymning  the  burdens  of  the  poor,  and 
are  asking  what  avails  our  much-boasted  prosperity  if 
multitudes  cannot  earn  a  living  wage.  These  voices  do 
not  despair  of  the  future,  but  they  clamor  that  its  visions 
of  hope  be  not  permitted  to  obscure  the  despairing  facts 
of  the  present.  Sidney  Lanier's  pathetic  wail  is  but  a 
sign  that  genius  is  waking  up  to  a  new  mission,  which 
is  after  all  only  another  phase  of  the  old.  Listen  as  he 
indignantly  and  sorrowfully  asks  : 

Yea,  what  avail  the  endless  tale 
Of  gain  by  cunning  and  plus  by  sale  ? 
Look  up  the  land,  look  down  the  land, 
The  poor,  the  poor,  the  poor,  they  stand 
Wedged  by  the  pressing  of  Trade' s  hand 
Against  an  inward-opening  door. 
That  pressure  tightens  evermore. 
They  sigh  a  monstrous,  foul-air  sigh 
For  the  outside  leagues  of  liberty, 
Where  Art,  sweet  lark,  translates  the  sky 
Into  a  heavenly  melody.  ^ 

But  by  and  by  the  door  shall  open  outwardly  and  the 
trade-imprisoned  and  trade-tortured  multitudes  breathe 
the  sweet,  pure  air  of  freedom  and  share  with  the  lark 
her  matin  song  of  joy. 

Thus  nobly  have  English-speaking  men  of  letters  fur- 
thered the  cause  of  human  emancipation  and  happiness. 

^  "The  Symphony." 


1 82      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

They  are  not,  however,  solitary  workers.  Other  climes 
have  witnessed  the  endeavors  of  writers  to  promote  the 
liberty  and  well-being  of  the  masses.  ''  But  time  would 
fail  to  tell "  of  Delavigne  and  his  devotion  to  the 
Greeks ;  of  Petofi ;  of  Eotvos ;  of  Josika,  whose  songs 
and  stories  inspired  Hungary  to  assert  her  rights ;  of 
Jahn ;  of  Korner ;  of  Freiligrath,  to  whom  the  Ger- 
mans owe  much  of  their  national  spirit ;  of  Karamzin  ; 
of  Pushkin ;  of  Gogol ;  of  Tourgenieff,  whose  writings 
have  saved  Russia  from  the  terrible  serfdom  of  the  past, 
and  have  tended  to  abate  the  rigors  of  absolute  autoc- 
racy ;  and  of  Beranger ;  of  Eugene  Sue ;  of  Victor 
Hugo,  who  taught  France  that  the  people  have  souls, 
that  "the  king's  heart  is  not  in  the  hand  of  God,  as  God 
has  no  hand  and  the  king  no  heart,"  and  that  to-morrow 
will  be  humanity's  day  of  deliverance,  «'from  the  slave 
dealer  to  the  Pharisee,  from  the  cabin  where  the  slave 
weeps  to  the  chapel  where  the  eunuch  sings."  Time 
would  fail  to  tell  and  to  recount  the  achievements  of 
these  prophets,  who  have  restrained  political  tyranny; 
who  have  forwarded  the  emancipation  of  industry ;  who 
have  vindicated  humanity;  and  who  have  given  us  an 
insight  into  the  beauty  and  power  of  that  brotherhood 
of  whose  "Muse"  Edwin  Markham  has  lately  sung  so 
sweetly : 

I  come  to  lift  the  soul-destroying  weight, 
To  heal  the  hurt,  to  end  the  foolish  loss, 

To  take  the  toiler  from  his  brutal  fate — 
The  toiler  hanging  on  the  Labor-Cross. 


Still  hope  for  man  ;  my  star  is  in  the  way  ! 
Great  Hugo  saw  it  from  his  prison  isle  ; 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  1 83 

It  lit  the  mighty  dream  of  Lamennais  ; 
It  shook  the  ocean  thunders  of  Carlyle. 

Wise  Greeley  touched  the  star  of  my  desire, 
Great  Lincoln  knelt  before  my  hidden  flame  : 

It  was  from  me  they  drew  their  sacred  fire — 
I  am  Religion  by  her  deeper  name. 

The  reference  to  Victor  Hugo  in  this  verse  is  more 
than  happy;  for  it  reminds  us  that  the  great  French- 
man not  only  himself  serves  the  cause  of  human  fra- 
ternity by  his  glorious  literary  genius,  but,  moreover, 
insists  that  to  no  sublimer  cause  can  it  be  devoted.  He 
is  clear  and  direct  on  this  point.  Many  theories  have 
been  broached  concerning  the  mission  of  art,  whether 
in  painting  or  in  letters.  Some  of  these  were  appealed 
to  in  Hugo's  day  for  the  purpose  of  depreciating  the 
quality  of  his  work.  In  answering  these  critics  he  has 
in  reality  appealed  to  the  creators  of  literature  not  to 
despise  the  vocation  and  the  obligation  of  the  proj^het. 

"You  say,"  he  writes,  "the  muse  is  made  to  sing,  to  love,  to 
believe,  to  pray. ' '  Yes,  and  no.  Let  us  understand  each  other. 
To  sing  to  whom  ?  The  void  ?  To  love  whom  ?  One's  self?  To 
believe  what  ?  The  dogma  ?  To  pray  to  what  ?  The  idol  ?  No, 
here  is  the  truth  :  to  sing  to  the  ideal,  to  love  humanity,  to  be- 
lieve in  progress,  to  pray  toward  the  infinite.  .  .  Help  from  the 
strong  for  the  weak,  help  from  the  great  for  the  small,  help  from 
the  free  for  the  slaves,  help  from  the  thinkers  for  the  ignorant, 
help  from  the  solitary  for  the  multitudes — such  is  the  law  from 
Isaiah  to  Voltaire.  He  who  does  not  follow  this  law  may  be  a 
genius,  but  he  is  only  a  genius  of  luxury.  By  not  handling  the 
things  of  earth  he  thinks  to  purify  himself ;  but  he  annuls  him- 
self. He  is  the  refined,  the  delicate,  he  may  be  the  exquisite 
genius.  Any  one,  roughly  useful,  but  useful,  has  the  right  to  ask, 
on   seeing   this  good-for-nothing  genius,    "Who  is  this  idler?" 


1 84      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

The  amphora  which  refuses  to  go  to  the  fountain   deserves  the 
hisses  of  the  water-pots. 

"Great  is  he  who  consecrates  himself!  Even  when  overcome 
he  remains  serene,  and  his  misfortune  is  happiness.  No,  it  is  not 
a  bad  thing  for  the  poet  to  be  brought  face  to  face  with  duty. 
Duty  has  a  stern  likeness  to  the  ideal.  The  task  of  doing  one's 
duty  is  worth  undertaking.  Truth,  honesty,  the  instruction  of  the 
masses,  human  liberty,  manly  virtue,  conscience,  are  not  things 
to  disdain." 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Hebrew  prophets  recog- 
nized their  own  limitations.  At  the  very  height  of  their 
influence  they  are  always  predicting  the  coming  of  One 
who  is  to  "reign  and  prosper,"  who  is  to  be  as  ''the 
shadow  of  a  great  rock  in  a  weary  land,"  and  who  shall 
neither  "fail  nor  be  discouraged"  till  he  has  set  judg- 
ment in  the  earth.  They  realize  that  the  power  to  save 
society  is  not  in  themselves  but  in  the  Messiah,  Of 
him  they  speak  ;  to  him  they  point ;  he  is  the  burden  of 
their  loftiest  announcements,  the  center  and  glory  of 
their  most  beatific  visions  ;  and  next  to  him,  a  people 
called  by  his  name,  a  new  Israel,  a  grander  nation,  a 
holier  kingdom  of  men,  taking  final  shape,  if  shape  it 
has,  in  the  church  of  God,  the  fellowship  of  the  saints. 
During  the  ministry  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  this 
spiritual  community  emerged  from  the  hard,  cruel  Jew- 
ish and  pagan  world  like  a  stone  hewn  from  a  mountain 
without  hands.  It  is  not  to  be  said  that  the  church  was 
to  take  the  place  of  her  Lord  after  his  ascension,  but 
rather  that  he  was  to  take  his  place  in  her  as  the  per- 
manent source  of  her  life  and  influence.  To  him  then, 
first  by  himself  and  afterward  to  him  in  her,  the  ancient 
prophets  looked  for  the  divine  energy  necessary  to  con- 
vert their  dreams  into  the  commonplaces  of  experience 


THE    SEERS    AND    SAGES  1 85 

and  to  fulfill  in  glorious  measure  all  the  terms  of  their 
glowing  predictions.  Modern  prophetism  also  has  its 
limitations.  It  is  a  voice  only,  crying,  ''  Prepare  ye  the 
way  of  the  Lord."  The  real  work  of  saving  society  is 
to  be  done  and  can  only  be  done  by  spiritual  forces. 

Hence,  Professor  Lombroso  has  confessed  that  social 
problems  can  only  be  solved  by  a  religion  that  takes 
''  as  its  standard  the  new  social  ideals  which  Christ  has 
already  preached  " ;  and  Louis  Kossuth  declared  in  his 
day  that  *'if  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  which  are 
found  in  the  New  Testament  could  be  applied  to  home 
society,  the  solution  oi  the  social  problem  would  be 
reached."  Consequently,  the  tone  and  extent  of  modern 
prophetism  carry  with  them  an  appeal  to  the  conscience 
of  the  church  and  a  discovery  of  her  responsibility. 
What  she  may  do  is  involved  in  Lowell's  brilliant  de- 
scription of  what  she  has  been  : 

Christianity  has  never  been  concession,  never  peace  ;  it  is  con- 
tinual aggression  ;  one  province  of  wrong  conquered,  its  pioneers 
are  already  in  the  heart  of  another.  The  milestones  of  its  onward 
march  down  the  ages  have  not  been  monuments  of  material  power, 
but  the  blackened  stakes  of  martyrs,  trophies  of  individual  fidelity 
to  conviction  ;  for  it  is  the  only  religion  which  is  superior  to  all 
endowment,  to  all  authority — which  has  a  bishopric  and  a  cathe- 
dral whenever  a  single  human  soul  has  surrendered  itself  to  God. 

Is  this  her  character,  this  her  record,  this  her  won- 
derful power.?  All  then  that  she  needs  to  render  her 
effective  in  regenerating  modern  society  is — conscience. 
Given  this,  given  an  awakened,  sensitive  conscience, 
and  ''the  world's  redemption  would  be  nigh,  even  at  the 
door."  Let  her  recognize  the  truth.  Prophetism  in 
literature,  like  prophetism  in  the  Old  Testament,  can 


1 86      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

never  bring  to  pass  the  changes  it  desires  and  the  bless- 
ings it  portrays.  If  these  are  ever  to  be  accomplished 
it  must  be  through  one  greater  than  the  prophets — 
through  Christ  incarnate  in  his  church,  of  whom  it  has 
been  written  for  our  consolation  :  "And  he  shall  judge 
among  many  people,  and  rebuke  strong  nations  afar 
off ;  and  they  shall  beat  their  swords  into  plowshares, 
and  their  spears  into  pruninghooks :  nation  shall  not 
lift  up  a  sword  against  nation,  neither  shall  they  learn 
war  any  more.  But  they  shall  sit  every  man  under  his 
vine  and  under  his  fig  tree;  and  none  shall  make  them 
afraid  :  for  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  hath  spoken 
it."  ^  Prophetism  announces  the  coming  and  the  need 
of  the  Christ-church,  and  it  is  for  her,  in  these  latter 
days,  like  her  Lord,  openly  to  avow  and  undertake  her 
mission.  *'  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  upon  me,  because 
he  hath  anointed  me  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  poor ; 
he  hath  sent  me  to  heal  the  broken-hearted,  to  preach 
deliverance  to  the  captives  and  recovering  of  sight  to 
the  blind,  to  set  at  liberty  them  that  are  bruised,  to 
preach  the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord."  ^ 

^  Micah  4  :  3,  4.  ^  Luke  4  :  18,  19. 


V 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY 


No  peace  for  thee,  no  peace, 

Till  blind  oppression  cease  ; 

The  stones  cry  from  the  walls, 

Till  the  gray  injustice  falls, 
Till  strong  men  come  to  build  in  freedom-fate 
The  pillars  of  the  new  Fraternal  State. 

Let  trifling  pipe  be  mute. 

Fling  by  the  languid  lute  ; 
Take  down  the  trumpet  and  confront  the  hour, 
And  speak  to  toil-worn  nations  from  a  tower  ; 

Take  down  the  horn  wherein  the  thunders  sleep, 
Blow  battles  into  men,  call  down  the  fire. 
The  daring,  the  long  purpose,  the  desire  : 

Descend  with  faith  into  the  human  deep. 

— Markham. 


V 

THE    SOCIAL    AWAKENING    OF    THE    CHRISTIAN    CHURCH 

Rather    to   churches    than    to    poets   should    these 
stinging  words, 

Let  trifling  pipe  be  mute, 
FUng  by  the  languid  lute, 

have  been  addressed  by  their  author ;  for  churches,  by 
their  origin  and  nature,  have  been  exalted  to  the  lof- 
tiest height  of  commanding  authority,  and  they  have 
been  especially  commissioned  to  found  the  new  "  Fra- 
ternal State."  For  them,  therefore,  to  idly  play  with 
the  "  languid  lute  "  while  the  people  are  perishing  for 
lack  of  bread  is  for  them  to  be  stained  with  blood- 
guiltiness  ;  and  for  them  to  muffle  the  sharp  notes  of 
the  gospel  trumpet,  and  for  them  to  play  in  the  shallows 
of  human  affairs  instead  of  fathoming  the  depths,  is  for 
them  either  to  be  unpardonably  oblivious  to  their  grave 
vocation  or  to  be  shamefully  disloyal  to  its  obligations. 
A  prominent  monthly  magazine^  has  recently  reproached 
a  dignified  Church  Congress  held  in  London,  for  failing 
in  any  way  to  consider  the  tremendous  issues  in  South 
Africa,  involving  immense  sacrifices  in  life  and  treasure, 
but  which  could  ''wax  wildly  enthusiastic  or  indignant, 
as  the  case  might  be,  about  such  momentous  matters  as 
incense  and  candles."  "  The  weightier  matters  of  the 
law,  justice,  righteousness,  and  peace,"  did  not  seem  to 

^  "Review  of  Reviews,"  November,  1899. 


1 90      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

concern  these  exalted  and  reverend  divines.  Wlienever 
such  an  instance  as  this  occurs,  the  contrast  becomes 
painfully  acute  between  the  church  as  she  sometimes  is, 
and  as  she  ought  to  be,  and  as  she  is  more  and  more 
coming  to  be,  and  accentuates  the  necessity  that  still 
exists  for  determined  efforts  to  '*  call  down  the  fire  "  on 
her  altars,  and  for  burning  appeals  that  she  may  feel 
the  significance  of  the  present  hour  and  not  only  "blow 
battles  into  men  "  but  herself  be  a  constant  battle  on 
behalf  of  "  toil-worn  nations." 

That  she  has  a  gospel  for  time  as  well  as  for  eternity 
will  scarcely  be  challenged  by  those  who  are  familiar 
v^ith  New  Testament  teachings.  There  we  read  pas- 
sages of  gracious  import  which  relate  to  the  present 
life  and  which,  taken  together,  constitute  a  social  gospel 
which  it  behooves  the  children  of  God  to  proclaim  and 
actualize.  Let  us  take  a  few  of  these  texts,  that  we 
may  form  some  idea  of  the  aim  and  scope  of  this  social 
evangel.     It  is  written  : 

"  Let  all  that  ye  do  be  done  in  love."  "  Love  worketh  no  ill 
to  his  neighbour:  love  therefore  is  the  fulfilment  of  the  law." 
"Remember  them  that  are  in  bonds  as  bound  with  them  ;  and 
them  which  suffer  adversity  as  being  yourselves  also  in  the  body." 
"To  do  good  and  to  communicate  forget  not  :  for  with  such  sac- 
rifices God  is  well  pleased."  "And  whether  one  member  suffer- 
eth,  all  the  members  suffer  with  it  ;  or  one  member  is  honoured,  all 
the  members  rejoice  with  it."  "If  because  of  meat  thy  brother 
is  grieved,  thou  walkest  no  longer  in  love.  Destroy  not  with  thy 
meat  him  for  whom  Christ  died."  "What  doth  it  profit,  my 
brethren,  .  .  if  a  brother  or  sister  be  naked  and  destitute  of 
daily  food,  and  one  of  you  say  unto  them,  Depart  in  peace,  be  ye 
warmed  and  filled  ;  notwithstanding  ye  give  them  not  those  things 
which  are  needful  to  the  body;  what  doth  it  profit?"  "All 
things  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  I9I 

even  so  to  them."  "Charge  them  that  are  rich  in  this  world 
that  they  be  not  high-minded,  nor  trust  in  uncertain  riches, 
but  in  the  living  God  who  giveth  us  richly  all  things  to  enjoy  ; 
that  they  do  good,  that  they  be  rich  in  good  works,  ready  to  dis- 
tribute, willing  to  communicate,  laying  up  in  store  for  themselves 
a  good  foundation  against  the  time  to  come."  "Behold,  the 
hire  of  the  labourers  who  have  reaped  down  your  fields,  which  is 
of  you  kept  back  by  fraud,  crieth  :  and  the  cries  of  them  which 
have  reaped  are  entered  into  the  ears  of  the  Lord  of  Sabaoth  ' '  ; — 

a  warning  that  recalls  the  threatenings  of  the  prophet 
Jeremiah  : 

"Woe  unto  him  that  buildeth  his  house  by  unrighteousness,  and 
his  chambers  by  injustice  ;  that  useth  his  neighbour's  service  with- 
out wages,  and  giveth  him  not  his  hire  ;  that  saith,  I  will  build 
me  a  wide  house  and  spacious  chambers,  .  .  and  it  is  cieled 
with  cedar  and  painted  with  vermillion.  Shalt  thou  reign  because 
thou  strivest  to  excel  in  cedar  ?  Did  not  thy  father  eat  and  drink, 
and  do  judgment  and  justice  ?     Then  it  was  well  with  him."^ 

Declarations  almost  identical  with  these  could  be  well- 
nigh  indefinitely  multiplied ;  but  even  these,  taken  in 
connection  with  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  reveal  a 
social  ideal  which  differs  materially  from  anything  we 
find  practically  operative  in  any  community,  even  in  the 
church  herself.  At  the  heart  of  these  verses,  we  recog- 
nize a  conception  of  society  governed  by  love  and  jus- 
tice, where  the  laborer  is  not  robbed  of  his  wages  or 
denied  a  fair  share  in  the  profits  he  has  helped  to  create ; 
where  business  is  not  conducted  on  the  principle  that 
accumulation  of  money  is  the  chief  end  of  man,  and  it 
may,  therefore,  be  acquired  by  pillaging  the  unsuspect- 

^  I  Cor.  16  :  14  ;  Rom.  13  :  lo  ;  Heb.  13  :  3,  16  ;  I  Cor.  12  :  26  ;  Rom. 
14  :  15  ;  James  2  :  14-16  ;  Matt.  7  :  12  ;  I  Tim.  6  :  17-19  ;  James  5  : 
4;  Jer.  22  :  13-15.  (R.  V.) 


192      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ing  under  form  of  law  ;  where  luxury  and  the  enjoyment 
of  the  beautiful  in  the  elegance  of  our  surroundings  are 
not  secured  by  willfully  or  negligently  inflicting  wretched- 
ness on  the  artisan  ;  where  affluence  is  not  the  exclusive 
possession  of  the  few  but  is  merely  a  trust  to  be  ex- 
pended on  the  welfare  of  the  many;  where  sympathy  is 
not  evaporated  into  sentimentality  but  is  condensed 
into  practical  measures  for  the  prevention  of  every  kind 
of  bondage,  whether  to  sovereigns  or  syndicates ;  where 
neighborliness  is  not  embittered  and  outraged  by  petty 
scheming  and  dastardly  tricks ;  and  where  brotherhood 
is  no  longer  a  name  but  a  reality,  determining  human 
intercourse,  fixing  the  terms  of  the  science  of  human 
interests,  and  filling  human  life  with  the  generous  acts 
and  sweet  influences  of  self-sacrifice,  purity,  and  peace. 
As  the  book  containing  these  provisions  of  what  may 
be  and  should  be  was,  from  the  beginning,  committed 
to  the  church,  we  are  warranted  in  concluding  that  they 
were  designed  for  her  instruction  and  inspiration  ;  other- 
wise, there  were  no  reason  for  their  being  given  at  all. 
I  am  aware  that  his  grace  of  Peterborough  has  recently 
decided  that  society  could  not  be  constructed  on  the 
principles  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount ;  but  I  must 
crave  indulgence  to  attach  more  importance  to  the  tes- 
timony of  Christ  than  to  that  of  a  bishop  who  probably 
was  conscious,  when  he  spoke,  of  the  insuperable  diffi- 
culty that  exists  in  harmonizing  the  assumptions  of  a 
hierarchy  with  that  view  of  social  order  which  begins 
with  the  non-ecclesiastical  beatitude,  ''  Blessed  are  the 
poor  in  spirit ;  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven."  It 
seems  irreverent  to  place  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles 
in  the  position  of  solemn  triflers,  amusing  the  world  with 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  I93 

impracticable  and  hazy  notions  of  virtues  and  blessings 
which,  the  longer  they  are  sought,  fade  away  the  more 
into  the  incoherent  and  intangible.  That  Jesus  did  not 
thus  esteem  his  own  teachings,  and  that  he  did  not  regard 
them  as  fanciful  and  unavailing,  we  have  proof  in  the. 
closing  sentences  of  his  memorable  sermon  :  '*  Every  one 
therefore,  which  heareth  these  words  of  mine,  and  doeth 
them," — then  they  can  be  done, — ''shall  be  likened  unto 
a  wise  man  which  built  his  house  upon  the  rock.  And 
the  rain  descended  and  the  floods  came,  and  the  winds 
blew  and  beat  upon  that  house  ;  and  it  fell  not :  for  it  was 
founded  upon  the  rock."^  According  to  this  utterance, 
our  Lord  is  so  far  from  countenancing  the  English 
bishop's  dictum  that  he  actually  intends  us  to  under- 
stand that  when  individual  men  or  communities  of  men 
build  on  what  is  condemned  in  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  they  are  building  on  the  unstable,  the  shifting, 
and  the  unenduring,  a  judgment  which  the  world's  his- 
tory has  unceasingly  corroborated.  Then  it  follows,  if 
Christ  meant  his  teachings  to  be  taken  seriously,  they 
are  certainly  obligatory  on  his  church ;  first,  as  the  rule 
of  her  own  life,  and,  secondly,  as  the  aim  of  her  inter- 
course with  the  world.  She  is  bound  to  fulfill  them  in 
her  own  communion,  to  illustrate  their  working,  and  to 
demonstrate  their  feasibility;  and  she  is  bound  to  be 
governed  by  them  in  her  relations  with  society  beyond 
her  own  borders,  and  to  seek  their  acceptance  and 
adoption  by  society  itself;  and  within  the  circle  of  these 
duties,  we  find  the  terms  that  define  her  social  mission. 
Dr.  Baring-Gould  reminds  the  students  of  Christianity 
that  "theological  writers  have  not   laid  sufficient  stress 

^  Matt.  7  :  24-27. 

N 


194      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

on  the  great  social  revulsion  with  which  the  Jewish 
world  was  threatened  by  the  teaching  of  Christ."  "  The 
public  to  whom  Christ  appealed  has  not  been  adequately 
considered,"  he  writes,  ''nor  has  it  been  shown  how 
large  it  was,  how  uneasy  was  its  position."  We  all 
know  that  Jesus  followed  John,  announcing,  "  The 
kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand  "  ;  and  that,  from  the 
expressed  apprehension  of  the  high  priest,  this  move- 
ment was  regarded  as  so  revolutionary  as  to  incite  the 
Romans  to  "  come  and  take  away  both  our  place  and 
our  nation."^  As  a  means,  therefore,  of  preserving  the 
existing  regime^  and  as  a  measure  of  public  safety,  the 
death  of  Christ  was  planned  and  carried  into  execution. 
While  in  this  death,  on  the  part  of  God,  was  involved 
the  grace  of  sacrifice  for  the  remission  of  sins,  in  it 
and  by  it  the  rulers  of  the  Jewish  State  sought  to  con- 
solidate and  perpetuate  the  old  order.  They  were  con- 
servatives fighting  to  the  bitter  end  against  the  radical- 
ism of  the  Galilean  Prophet. 

There  are  writers  who  seize  this  thought  and  are 
carried  away  by  it  into  the  misconception  that  the  sole 
object  of  our  Lord  was  to  regenerate  society,  and  who 
ignore  the  innumerable  texts  which  point  to  his  primary 
purpose  in  the  conversion  of  the  soul  and  in  the  recon- 
iciliation  of  man  with  God.  I  say  primary ;  for  the 
highest  and  truest  social  life  springs  from  and  is  insepa- 
rable from  spiritual  relations  and  spiritual  experiences. 
But  while,  in  the  apostolic  literature,  the  mediatorial 
aspects  of  Christ's  work  may,  on  account  of  its  funda- 
mental character,  receive  more  attention  than  the  social, 
yet,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  latter  was  not  in  any 

1  John  1 1  :  48-50. 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  1 95 

sense  neglected.  It  is  also  true  that,  in  the  sub-apos- 
tolic period,  the  church  did  not  lose  sight  of  her  tem- 
poral mission.  She  did  attempt,  weak  as  she  was,  to 
correct  abuses,  inaugurate  reforms,  and  elevate  the  com- 
munity, illustrating  in  her  own  administration  how  the 
world  should  organize  itself  in  love  and  fraternity. 
Henry  George  held  that  it  was  her  social  side  that 
arrayed  against  her  the  suspicion  and  the  animosity 
of  civil  rulers.      He  writes 

The  skeptical  masters  of  Rome,  tolerant  of  all  gods,  careless 
of  what  they  deemed  vulgar  superstitions,  were  keenly  sensitive 
to  a  doctrine  based  on  equal  rights  ;  they  feared  instinctively  a 
religious  belief  that  inspired  slave  and  proletariat  with  a  new 
hope  ;  that  took  for  its  central  figure  a  wretched  carpenter  ;  that 
taught  the  equal  fatherhood  of  God  and  equal  brotherhood  of 
men  ;  that  looked  for  the  speedy  reign  of  justice  ;  and  that  prayed, 
Thy  kingdom  come. 

Imperialism  could  brook  no  rival  and  would  permit 
no  tampering  with  the  corrupted  and  polluted  springs 
of  its  magnificence  ;  and  hence  all  of  its  tremendous 
strength  was  put  forth  to  crush  its  assailant. 

Notwithstanding  this  antagonism,  the  church  wit- 
nessed many  beneficent  reforms  in  the  decaying  empire 
due  to  her  labors  and  influence;  and  afterward,  even 
when  her  vision  had  become  somewhat  dimmed  by  gaz- 
ing too  steadfastly  into  the  face  of  worldly  splendor, 
her  sympathies  went  out  toward  the  oppressed  and  suf- 
fering. Frequently  there  sounded  among  her  syco- 
phant tongues  a  voice  like  that  of  William  Langland, 
pleading  for  New  Testament  social  ideals,  and  praying : 

Poor  people,  thy  prisoners.  Lord,  in  the  pit  of  mischief, 
Comfort  thv  creatures  that  much  can  suffer 


196      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Through  dearth,  through  drought,  all  their  days  here. 

Woe  in  winter  times  for  wanting  of  clothes, 

And  in  summer  time  seldom  sup  to  the  full  ; 

Comfort  thy  careful,  Christ,  in  thy  ryche, 

For  how  thou  comfortest  all  creatures,  clerks  bear  witness. 

And  when  the  reaction  against  priestcraft  set  in  under 
Luther,  with  the  Reformation  came  something  like  a 
renewal  of  the  primitive  Christian  impulse  to  undertake 
the  salvation  of  society.  Startling  theories  were  agi- 
tated; New  Jerusalem  doctrines  were  discussed;  revo- 
lutionary upheavals  on  the  part  of  peasants  were  in- 
augurated, some  of  them  crude,  ill-digested,  premature, 
but  all  indicating  that,  in  proportion  as  the  church 
returns  to  the  heart  of  Christ  and  comes  nearer  to  the 
spirit  of  the  gospel,  she  will  necessarily  be  moved  to 
seek  the  salvation  of  the  temporal  order  as  well  as  the 
spiritual  regeneration  of  mankind. 

Perhaps  the  saddest  and  most  humiliating  chapter  in 
history  is  the  one  that  records  the  falling  away  of  the 
great  body  of  the  church  from  her  vocation  as  the 
saviour  of  the  world.  This  was  a  gradual  descent.  It 
was  not  a  change  in  her  convictions  that  led  to  the 
calamity.  There  is  a  sense  in  which  she  has  never 
ceased  to  hold  that  she  is  necessary  to  the  welfare  of 
governments  and  ought  to  have  a  determining  voice  in 
their  control;  but  her  apostasy  lay  in  transferring  her 
interest  from  the  poor  to  the  rich,  in  seeking  the  favor 
of  kings  and  not  the  advantage  of  the  oppressed,  in 
centering  her  affections  on  the  lofty  to  the  neglect  of 
the  lowly,  in  aspiring  to  rule  in  the  State  and  above 
the  State  and  by  the  corrupt  policies  of  the  State 
instead    of    converting    the    State,  and    in   always   and 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  1 97 

unflinchingly  striving  to  aggrandize  herself  and  appar- 
ently not  caring  what  becomes  of  the  people  at  large. 
It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  many  ecclesiastics  who 
have  been  prominent  in  this  departure  from  the  spirit 
of  the  gospel  have  cherished  the  delusion  that  in  this 
way  they  would  finally  succeed  in  making  ''  the  king- 
doms of  this  world  the  kingdoms  of  God  and  his 
Christ";  but  the  results  have  shown  that  the  course 
adopted  is  thoroughly  pernicious  and  misleading,  for  it 
has  rather  corrupted  and  degraded  '*  the  kingdoms  of 
this  world  "  instead  of  elevating  them,  and  has  entirely 
unfitted  them  to  be  in  any  real  sense  the  "  kingdoms  of 
God  and  his  Christ." 

That  this  summary  of  the  declension  of  the  church  is 
not  overdone  may  be  proven  by  the  satires  contained  in 
the  buffoon  literature  of  the  medieval  times,  in  one  of 
which  we  have  the  following  :  "  The  pope  said  to  the 
Romans :  '  When  the  son  of  man  shall  come  to  the  seat 
of  your  majesty,  first  say.  Friend,  for  what  hast  thou 
come  ?  but  if  he  should  persevere  in  knocking  without 
giving  you  anything,  cast  him  into  utter  darkness.'  " 
Then  having  described  how  a  poor  man  came  to  the 
door  of  the  pope,  pleading  for  help,  he  pens  the  answer 
supposed  to  be  given :  <'  Friend,  thy  poverty  be  with 
thee  in  perdition  ;  get  thee  backward,  Satan,  for  thou 
savourest  not  of  those  things  which  have  the  savour  of 
money.  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  thee,  thou  shalt  not 
enter  into  the  joy  of  thy  lord  until  thou  shalt  have  given 
thy  last  farthing."  '  If  further  evidence  were  neces- 
sary, it  may  be  gathered  from  John  Ruskin's  sorrowful 
account  of  the  gradual  deterioration  which  took  place 

^  Wright,  "  History  of  Caricature,"  p.  172. 


198      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

in  the  church,  and  which  led  to  such  depth  of  worldH- 
ness  and  to  such  neglect  of  the  suffering  people  as  to 
create  at  last  a  serious  revolt  among  her  own  communi- 
cants.     He  concludes  his  survey  with  these  words  : 

But  when  every  year  that  removed  the  truths  of  the  gospel  into 
deeper  distance  added  to  them  some  false  or  foolish  tradition  ; 
when  willful  distortion  was  added  to  natural  obscurity  and  the 
dimness  of  memory  was  disguised  by  the  fruitfulness  of  fiction  ; 
when,  however,  the  enormous  temporal  power  granted  to  the 
clergy  attracted  into  their  ranks  multitudes  of  men  who,  but  for 
such  temptation,  would  not  have  pretended  to  the  Christian  name, 
so  that  grievous  wolves  entered  in  among  them,  not  sparing  the 
flock  ;  and  when,  by  the  machinations  of  such  men  and  the  re- 
missness of  others,  the  form  and  administration  of  church  doc- 
trine and  discipline  had  become  little  worse  than  the  means  of 
aggrandizing  the  power  of  the  priesthood — it  was  impossible  any 
more  for  men  of  thoughtfulness  or  piety  to  remain  in  an  unques- 
tioning serenity  of  faith.  The  church  had  become  so  mingled 
with  the  world  that  its  witness  could  no  longer  be  received,  and 
the  professing  members  of  it,  who  were  placed  in  circumstances 
such  as  to  enable  them  to  become  aware  of  its  corruptions  and 
whom  their  interest  or  their  simplicity  did  not  bribe  or  beguile 
into  silence,  gradually  separated  themselves  into  two  vast  multi- 
tudes of  adverse  energy,  one  tending  to  reformation  and  the  other 
to  infidelity. 

Unfortunately,  this  condition  of  things  was  not 
brought  to  an  end,  either  by  the  Reformation  or  by 
infidelity.  The  descent  was  too  great  and  the  gravita- 
tion downward  too  marked  for  a  salutary  change  to  be 
instantaneously  possible.  This  pernicious  worldliness 
was  carried  over  even  into  the  Reformation  itself.  The 
manifestations  of  desire  on  the  part  of  the  lowly  to 
improve  their  temporal  condition,  which  were  sadly  dis- 
figured by  certain  grotesque  theories,  were  rudely  and 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  1 99 

abruptly  checked.  Luther  has  as  Uttle  sympathy  with 
the  peasants  in  their  endeavors  to  secure  the  adoption 
of  the  famous  ''  Twelve  Articles,"  which  meant  the  end 
of  serfdom  and  the  beginning  of  better  social  conditions, 
as  the  pope  himself;  and  since  his  time,  and  down  to 
our  own  day,  it  has  been  common  for  Protestants  to 
speak  in  scorn  of  those  poor  children  of  toil  who  were 
striving  for  principles  which  are  now,  notwithstanding 
the  sneers  of  unsympathetic  clerical  critics,  recognized 
by  the  German  State  as  sane,  safe,  and  sound.  Still, 
while  it  does  not  prevail  so  cruelly  as  formerly,  there  is 
much  in  modern  Christianity  to  suggest  that  the  apathy 
to  social  wrongs  and  social  evils  has  not  been  entirely 
overcome  and  that  the  church,  if  waking  up — as  I  be- 
lieve she  is — to  her  social  mission,  has  not  fully  opened 
her  eyes  to  its  vastness  and  its  nobility. 

Nor  is  this  true  only  of  Roman  Catholicism  ;  it  applies 
to  the  Greek  Church  and  to  Protestantism  as  well. 
Pobyedonostseff,  procurator  of  the  Holy  Synod  of 
Russia,  sharply  criticises  the  discrimination  between 
rich  and  poor  which  he  observes  in  England,  and  which 
always,  wherever  it  is  allowed,  impairs  the  influence  of 
the  church  with  the  people.  After  extolling  his  own 
communion  for  acknowledging  no  class  distinction  with- 
in the  sanctuary,  he  proceeds  : 

Enter  an  English  church  and  watch  the  congregation.  It  is 
devout, — solemn,  it  maybe, — but  it  is  a  congregation  of  ladies  and 
gentlemen,  each  with  a  place  specially  reserved,  the  rich  in  sepa- 
rate and  embellished  pews  like  the  boxes  of  an  opera-house.  We 
cannot  help  thinking  that  this  church  is  merely  a  reunion  of 
people  in  society  and  that  there  is  place  in  it  only  for  what  society 
called  the  "respectable."    .    .    How  plainly  these  dispositions  re- 


200      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

veal  the  history  of  a  feudal  society.  .  .  Nobility  and  gentry  lead 
in  all,  because  they  possess  and  appropriate  all.  All  is  bought 
by  conquest,  even  the  right  to  sit  in  church.  The  celebration  of 
divine  service  is  a  privilege  sold  at  a  fixed  price.  ^ 

He  admits,  however,  though  apparently  with  reluc- 
tance, that  this  exclusiveness  has  been  remarkably 
modified  of  late,  and  that  caste  does  not,  to  the  same 
extent  as  heretofore,  impede  the  access  of  souls  to  the 
altars  of  God.  I  do  not  think  he  does  full  justice  to 
the  change  that  has  taken  place ;  and  yet,  in  both  Eng- 
land and  America,  there  is  room  for  greater  improve- 
ment, and  certainly  there  is  in  Russia,  Pobyedonostseff 
himself  being  witness,  for  he  states  that  his  communion 
is '^  reproached  with  ignorance  in  its  religion."  We  are 
told  that  ''  its  faith  is  defiled  by  superstition  "  ;  and 
then  he  adds  :  "  It  suffers  from  corrupt  and  wicked 
practices ;  its  clergy  is  rude,  inactive,  ignorant,  and 
oppressed,  without  influence  on  its  flocks."  What  is 
singular  about  this  confession  is  the  startling  declara- 
tion that  "  these  evils  are  in  no  way  essential,  but  tem- 
porary and  adventitious."  Further  on,  he  inquires  : 
"  What  shall  we  say  of  the  host  of  churches  lost  in  the 
depths  of  the  forests  and  in  the  immensity  of  the  plains, 
where  the  people  understand  nothing  from  the  trem- 
bling voice  of  the  deacon  and  the  muttering  of  the 
priest.-*"  If  we  may  answer  this  question,  we  would 
say  that  admitted  ignorance,  superstition,  corruption, 
and  wickedness  unfit  and  disqualify  the  Russian 
Church  for  her  sacred  mission,  reduce  her  below  the 
level  of  the   Ensflish  Establishment  when  it  was  at  its 

1  "A  Russian  Statesman,"  p.  207. 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  20I 

worst,  and  to  a  very  great  extent  blunt  the  QclgQ  of  her 
criticism.  She,  at  least,  cannot  claim  to  be  doing 
much,  if  anything,  for  the  social  betterment  of  the 
world;  for,  judged  by  the  tenor  of  the  procurator  gen- 
eral's book,  she  regards  progress  as  a  malady  and  liberty 
as  a  crime.  The  martyred  Stundists  and  martyred 
Spirit-wrestlers  are  the  proofs  of  her  indifference  to 
human  rights ;  and  her  priests  spending  the  winters 
drunk  upon  the  stove  and  the  peasantry  ignorant  beyond 
credence  are  the  unmistakable  sign  of  her  obtuseness 
to  the  most  elementary  demands  of  the  religious  spirit. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  in  no  small  degree  in 
the  same  condemnation.  While  she  is  as  intent  as 
ever  on  exercising  political  power,  she  rarely,  if  ever, 
goes  out  of  her  way  to  plead  with  sultans  on  behalf  of 
massacred  Armenians ;  to  remonstrate  with  Spanish 
governments  against  cruel  oppressions  in  Cuba ;  to  re- 
buke race  animosity,  Jew-baiting,  and  military  tyranny 
in  France ;  or  to  imperil  her  influence  with  reigning 
dynasties  and  commercial  autocracies  by  the  indiscreet 
advocacy  of  social  reforms.  When  popular  movements 
have  triumphed  or  are  triumphing,  so  that  it  is  evident 
they  are  independent  of  church  support,  she  is  ready  to 
come  on  the  scene  with  her  blessing,  as  in  the  case  of 
Leo  XIII.,  who  entered  into  amicable  relations  with 
freedom  in  France  when  its  victory  was  assured,  though 
his  predecessor,  Pio  Nono,  had  characterized  liberty,  in 
his  famous  anti-progressionist  encyclical,  as  a  "  delirious 
raving."  In  stating  these  things,  we  are  not  unmind- 
ful of  the  heroism  of  her  priests  and  of  her  sisters  of 
mercy  in  ministering  to  the  suffering,  or  of  her  multi- 
plied charities,  or  of  her  sacrifices  on  behalf  of  her  own 


202      CHRISTIANITY    IX    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

suioremacy ;  but  even  in  her  philanthropy,  she  is  always 
prudent.  She  moves  carefully,  watchfully,  in  doing 
good.  She  has  no  great  admiration  for  reformers  like 
Father  McGlynn,  and  she  never  seeks  to  be  distinctly 
prominent  in  any  agitations  that  contemplate  radical 
changes  in  the  present  industrial  system  ;  and  even 
were  it  worse  than  it  is,  she  would  assume  no  leadership 
for  its  reformation.  Let  Catholic  nations  all  over  the 
world  be  interrogated  and  their  tattered  condition  and 
their  unavailing  cries  for  deliverance  will  fully  confirm 
this  indictment. 

But  the  Protestant  body  itself  is  not  exempt  from 
participation  in  this  neglect  of  the  church's  social  mis- 
sion. The  large  majority  of  its  congregations,  many  of 
them  in  small  towns  and  in  rural  districts,  feel  only  a 
languid  interest,  if  any  interest  at  all,  in  the  evils  of 
modern  society,  and  have  no  particular  sense  of  obliga- 
tion to  attempt  their  cure.  In  the  great  cities,  where 
these  evils  are  felt  more  keenly,  there  is  undoubtedly  a 
deeper  and  a  deepening  solicitude  for  indispensable  re- 
forms. Signs  of  awakening  are  not  absent  in  these 
vast  centers  where  the  extremes  of  life  meet  and  reveal 
in  their  commingling  the  horrors  of  our  civilization. 
Yet,  even  there,  as  we  have  been  told  by  a  truthful  ob- 
server, the  churches  are  regarded  as  too  aristocratic, 
too  capitalistic,  and  too  individualistic  in  their  leanings. 
While  I  am  sure  this  suspicion  may  be  carried  too  far 
and  may  lead  biased  persons  to  overlook  the  many  con- 
gregations where  aristocrats  are  conspicuous  by  their 
absence  and  where  capitalists  are  as  infrequent  as  an- 
gels, nevertheless  there  is  ground  for  the  allegation  that 
there   is  no   sufficient   and  adequate   consciousness   of 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  203 

obligation  for  the  social  regeneration  of  the  world,  and 
that  no  comprehensive  and  commensurate  measures  and 
methods  are  as  yet  adopted  for  its  accomplishment. 

But,  notwithstanding  these  deplorable  failures,  there 
are  indications  of  an  awakening — an  awakening  dating 
not  merely  from  to-day  but  from  yesterday  and  perhaps 
even  from  the  day  before  yesterday.  The  long  sleep  is 
ending  ;  the  night  of  humiliation  is  drawing  to  an  end. 
To  many,  it  may  seem  that  the  church  has  been  an 
unconscionably  long  time  in  getting  her  eyes  wide  open  ; 
while  others,  from  what  she  has  brought  to  pass  in  the 
way  of  temporal  reform  during  the  last  hundred  years, 
may  hastily  conclude  that  she  is  fully  awake.  She  has 
indeed  been  slow  to  come  to  herself,  and  what  I  have 
said  of  her  present  attitude  would  not  be  true  had  she 
completely  escaped  from  the  spirit  of  slumber;  and  what 
she  has  wrought  in  the  way  of  temporal  benefits  to 
society  while  emerging  from  her  lethargic  stupor  is 
only  the  token  and  the  pledge  of  what  she  is  capable  of 
doing  when  she  has  put  an  end,  once  for  all,  to  its  bond- 
age. This,  she  is  doing  now ;  as  yet  perhaps  slowly 
and  timidly,  but  perceptibly  and  with  increasing  courage. 
There  are  multitudes  of  Catholic  priests  and  Protestant 
pastors,  and  there  are  some  religious  guides  in  the 
Greek  communion,  who  are  growing  more  and  more  dis- 
satisfied with  the  inequalities  that  exist  in  modern  so- 
ciety and  who  feel  that  the  church  can  no  longer  be  even 
comparatively  indifferent  to  the  miseries  that  are  cursing 
humble  people.  While  the  churches,  as  institutions, 
may  not  as  yet  be  in  sympathy  with  these  representa- 
tives, they  cannot  always  remain  unaffected  and  unmoved 
by  their  zeal  and  enthusiasm.      Already,  we  have  college 


204      CHRISTIANITY    Ix\    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

settlements,  institutional  churches,  federated  philan- 
thropic endeavors,  salvation  armies,  slum  missions  on 
behalf  of  the  neglected  masses  ;  and,  already,  we  have 
reached  a  time  when  the  meeting  of  a  church  congress 
without  the  discussion  of  social  problems  in  relation  to 
the  obligations  of  Christianity  is  considered  phenomenal 
and  worthy  of  serious  animadversion.  There  is  more 
preaching  than  ever  along  these  lines  and  more  books 
from  the  pens  of  clergymen  on  these  subjects  than 
would  have  been  considered  possible  twenty-five  years 
ago. 

But  these  are  only  superficial  signs  when  they  are 
put  by  the  side  of  the  new  and  unexampled  attention 
which  is  being  bestowed  by  theologians  and  sociological 
professors  on  the  real  significance  of  the  **  kingdom  of 
heaven."  This  investigation  and  the  conclusions  being 
reached  mean  more  than  sympathetic  and  sporadic 
humanitarian  efforts,  however  creditable  ;  for  they  are 
restoring  to  the  church  a  just  conception  of  her  tem- 
poral mission  and  are  shutting  her  up,  by  the  force,  not 
of  sentiment  only,  but  of  enlightened  conviction,  to  the 
pressing  necessity  that  exists  for  the  adjustment  of  her- 
self and  her  methods  to  its  demands.  This  remarkable 
and  undeniable  indication  of  her  social  awakening  ought 
not  to  be  dismissed  without  further  reflection. 

It  is  reported  of  Mazzini,  the  noble  Italian  liberator, 
that  he  used  to  say  : 

The  first  real  faith  that  shall  arise  upon  the  ruins  of  the  old, 
worn-out  creeds,  will  transform  the  whole  of  our  actual  social 
organization  ;  because  the  whole  history  of  humanity  is  but  the 
repetition  in  form  and  degree  of  the  Christian's  prayer,  "Thy 
kingdom  come  :   Thy  will  be  done  on  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven." 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  205 

This  transformation,  as  we  have  seen,  was  contemplated 
by  the  Saviour  from  the  beginning  of  the  gospel,  and 
what  Mazzini  predicted  is  to  be  effected,  not  so  much 
by  a  new  faith  as  by  the  just  interpretation  of  the  old  ; 
and  toward  such  an  interpretation  schools,  pulpits,  and 
theological  chairs  have  been  devoting  themselves  with 
remarkable  unanimity  during  the  nineteenth  century. 
Doctor  Arnold,  of  Rugby,  maintained  that  ''the  church 
is  only  another  name  for  the  State  in  its  perfect  develop- 
ment." What  he  meant  was  that  ''the  ideal  of  each  of 
these  bodies  merges  in  that  of  the  other,  as  the  State 
can  only  attain  its  true  object,  the  highest  welfare  of 
man,  when  it  acts  with  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the 
church,"  However  objectionable  may  be  some  features 
of  this  theory,  Arnold  is  evidently,  in  this  conception, 
struggling  to  express  the  Christian  idea  of  the  kingdom. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  Rev.  J.  Baldwin  Brown's  views 
in  his  paper  on  "  The  Christian  Commonwealth,"  where 
he  regards  the  religious  life  of  the  community  as  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  the  religious  life  of  the  individual. 
His  doctrine  is  really  sympathetic  with  that  of  Stahl,  of 
Germany,  with  which  Bunsen  agrees,  that  the  State  is, 
or  ought  to  be,  the  kingdom  of  God.  Dean  Fremantle, 
also,  has  insisted  on  a  similar  explanation.^  Rothe  ar- 
gues, with  considerable  force,  that  the  mission  of  Chris- 
tianity is  to  create  a  universal  State,  ruled  by  its  own 
governing  ideals.  Kliefoth  declares  that  it  is  her  busi- 
ness to  leaven  the  nations  with  her  own  principles  and 
life;  and  Martensen,  in  his  ''Ethics,"  identifies  the 
kingdom  of  God  with  the  highest  good.  The  Ritsch- 
lian  theory  has  been  expounded  by  Professor  Ore  for 

^  "  Gospel  of  the  Secular  Life." 


206      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  benefit  of  English  readers.      Its  essential  features 
are  thus  set  forth  : 

The  idea  of  the  kingdom  of  God  ...  is  Uiat  of  a  universal 
moral  union  of  men,  of  which  the  distinguishing  mark  is  recip- 
rocal action  from  the  motive  of  love.  .  .  It  is,  we  are  told  over 
and  over,  the  name  for  that  union  of  men  for  moral  duty  from 
the  motive  of  love  which  is  the  self-end  \Selbstzweck'\  and  final 
end  \^Endzweck'\  of  God  in  the  creation  of  the  world.  ^ 

Then  we  have  the  quotation  from  Ritschl  himself  : 

If,  accordingly,  the  creation  and  guidance  of  the  world  are  to 
be  apprehended  as  the  means  for  the  building  up  of  created 
spiritual  natures,  viz,  men,  into  a  kingdom  of  God  in  the  com- 
munity of  Christ,  then  the  religious  view  of  the  world  in  Chris- 
tianity is  the  means  of  the  solution  of  the  world-problem  gen- 
erally, and  the  mark  which  this  religion  bears  upon  itself  of  a 
particular  historical  origin  is  no  hindrance  to  its  including  within 
itself  the  universal  destination  of  the  human  race.^ 

To  me,  however,  this  is  only  a  mere  philosophical  and 
roundabout  way  of  saying  with  Cobden,  ''  My  politics 
are  the  politics  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  "  ;  for  all 
definitions,  however  abstruse  in  their  phraseology,  point 
to  the  regeneration  of  the  social  State  and  to  the  pre- 
dominance of  Christ's  social  ideas  as  its  architectonic 
form  and  life. 

By  the  multiplication  of  these  definitions  and  by  the 
increased  attention  given  to  the  kingdom  of  God,  the 
church  is  educating  her  own  intelligence  and  conscience ; 
and  very  soon  it  will  be  impossible  for  her  any  longer 
to  preserve  her  own  self-respect  if  she  fails  to  undertake 
the  revitalizing  and  reconstructing  of  society.    Her  most 

^  '■'■  Anfange  der  CJn-istlichen  Kirche.'''' 
^  "The  Ritschlian  Theology,"  pp.  119,  121. 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  20/ 

eminent  teachers  are  unfolding,  in  almost  identical  terms, 
her  duty,  and  they  are  doing  so  in  a  way  that  is  entirely 
free  from  sensationalism,  demagogism,  and  fanaticism, 
and  it  were,  indeed,  a  sadly  surprising  thing,  were  it 
conceivable  that  she  could  or  would  obstinately  con- 
tinue in  its  criminal  neglect. 

This  awakening  of  the  mind  of  the  church,  to  which 
I  attach  so  much  importance,  has  followed,  and  perhaps 
necessarily  so,  various  attempts  of  her  children  during 
the  past  hundred  years  to  abate  crying  wrongs  and  to 
correct  social  abuses.  While  she,  as  an  organization, 
may  frequently  have  stood  aloof  from  these  benevolent 
and  beneficent  movements  ;  and  while,  at  times,  some 
of  her  members  may  have  disavowed  sympathy  with 
them  and  may  have  denounced  their  promoters,  never- 
theless, it  is  cause  of  congratulation  and  a  sign  auspi- 
cious for  the  future,  that  many  of  her  communicants 
were  intimately  allied  to  their  origin  and  labored  ar- 
dently for  their  success.  Though  the  rock  was  hard 
and  forbidding,  it  became  the  mother  of  cooling  and 
refreshing  waters  ;  and  though  the  vast  city  of  the  dead 
remained  unmoved,  nevertheless  it  relaxed  enough  to 
permit  a  few  of  the  saints,  as  it  were,  to  rise  with  Jesus 
from  the  tomb.  Thus  has  it  always  been  ;  and  in 
periods  of  deepest  gloom,  and  when  ecclesiastical  or- 
ganizations have  been  farthest  from  the  spirit  of  the 
gospel,  God  has  ever  had  his  Elijah  and  the  faithful 
seven  thousand  who  would  not  bow  the  knee  to  Baal. 
A  Chrysostom  was  raised  up  in  the  days  when  a  plot- 
ting and  effeminate  court  in  Constantinople  was  cor- 
rupting the  heart  of  Christianity  while  it  was  decorating 
the  body  with  Eastern  magnificence.      When  the  crisis 


208      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURV 

came,  a  Wycliffe  appeared  within  the  church  for  her 
reformation  in  England,  a  Huss  in  Bohemia,  a  Savon- 
arola in  Italy,  a  Luther  in  Germany,  and,  in  these  last 
times,  a  plain,  unvarnished  man,  Dwight  L.  Moody,  the 
burden  of  whose  ministry  toward  its  close  was  the 
emancipation  of  the  church  of  Christ  from  woiidliness. 
The  Almighty  has  never  been  without  his  witnesses  in 
the  earth  ;  and  even  when  the  body  of  the  elect  has 
been  wandering  after  strange  gods,  he  has  never  failed 
to  discover  an  Isaiah  or  Ezekiel  to  condemn  apostasy 
and  prepare  the  way  for  nobler  and  better  things. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  credit  the  Oxford  Movement 
with  the  inspiration  of  recent  humane  activities.  Atten- 
tion is  called  to  the  Chartist  uprising  in  1848,  and  in 
some  degree  it  has  been  attributed  to  the  spirit  of  self- 
renunciation  manifested  in  the  discourses  of  Newman  ; 
but  without  in  the  least  detracting  from  the  merits  of 
the  new  Catholicism,  or  desiring  in  any  way  to  disparage 
the  efforts  of  such  men  as  Lamennais,  Frederick  Deni- 
son  Maurice,  Charles  Kingsley,  Thomas  Hughes,  Mont- 
alembert,  and  Lacordaire,  who  are  the  representatives 
of  a  broader  school,  the  religious  humanitarianism  of 
this  century  must  be  assigned  an  earlier  date. 

Personally,  I  rejoice  to  think  of  its  dawning  in  con- 
nection with  the  beginnings  of  the  Sunday-school  cause 
in  Great  Britain.  When,  in  1780,  Robert  Raikes,  a 
Gloucester  printer,  gathered  a  few  children  of  that 
cathedral  town  in  Sooty  Alley  and  began  to  instruct 
them  in  cleanliness,  in  the  elements  of  education,  and  in 
the  fear  of  the  Lord,  the  promise  of  a  kindlier  age  was 
born.  Let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  while  this  philan- 
thropy was  not  of  the  church  direct,  and  was  not  with- 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  209 

out  opposition  from  some  church  dignitaries,  it  yet  had 
its  origin  within  the  church  and  affords  an  ilhistration  of 
the  truth  that  the  spirit  of  Christianity  has  always  found 
many  difficulties  in  the  way  of  its  moral  expression. 

Not  altogether  prepossessing,  or  suggestive  of  saint- 
ship,  the  person  of  Robert  Raikes  as  portrayed  in  the 
graphic  account  of  his  career  furnished  by  Mr.  J.  Henry 
Harris  ;  but  if  his  works  are  to  be  taken  as  the  measure 
of  his  worth  and  piety,  then  his  name  is  entitled  to  rank 
high  in  the  hagiology  of  God's  kingdom.  Of  him  and  the 
commencement  of  his  enterprise,  Dean  Farrar  writes  in 
these  sympathetic  words  : 

He  saw  the  Htde,  dirty,  neglected  children,  with  the  pidable 
"slum-born"  look  written  on  their  faces,  singing  lewd  or  brutal 
songs  and  riodng  in  vice  and  ignorance,  on  Sundays,  in  the 
streets  of  the  cathedral  city.  Was  he  to  be  content  with  the 
faithless  acquiescent  plea  that  "What  is  everybody's  duty  is 
nobody's  duty"?  On  the  contrary,  he  asked  himself,  "Can 
nothing  be  done?"  A  voice  within  him  said,  "Try."  "  I  did 
try,"  he  says  ;  and  see  what  God  has  wrought.  An  experiment 
which  now  looks  so  simple  and  so  humble  as  that  of  trying  to 
lure  these  ragged  children  of  wretchedness  to  the  cathedral  ser- 
vices, and  paying  some  poor  woman  a  shilling  a  day  to  teach 
them,  resulted  not  only  in  a  marked  improvement  in  morals 
among  the  children  of  Gloucester  and  a  general  amendment  of 
the  condition  of  the  city,  but  in  the  gradual  imitation  of  his  ex- 
ample in  thousands  of  other  places.^ 

At  the  beginning,  it  does  not  appear  that  Robert 
Raikes  was  supremely  concerned  for  the  eternal  salva- 
tion of  the  boys  and  girls,  but  was  solicitous  for  their 
social  betterment.      He  had  their  temporal  welfare  at 

1  Introduction  to  Harris'  "  Robert  Raikes." 
O 


210      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

heart.  For  a  quarter  of  a  century  before  the  experi- 
ment in  Sooty  Alley, 

He  had  been  actively  engaged  in  attempting  to  make  the  con- 
dition of  criminals,  and  of  poor  debtors,  who  were  treated  as 
criminals,  endurable.  He  attempted  to  improve  the  adult  and  to 
reach  the  child  through  the  parent.  This  very  old  plan  failed  in 
his  case  ;  .  .  he  therefore  did  what  a  few  had  done  before  him, 
...    he  commenced  with  the  children. 

To-day,  we  are  informed  by  statistics  that  there  are 
upward  of  twenty  millions  of  young  people  in  the  Sun- 
day-schools of  Great  Britain  and  America;  and  gratify- 
ing as  these  figures  are  from  a  purely  religious  stand- 
point, they  are  almost  equally  so  from  the  standpoint 
of  humanitarianism.  They  signify  that  while  the  spirit- 
ual life  is  being  cared  for,  the  body  and  its  needs  are 
neither  ignored  nor  neglected;  for  wherever  children 
are  collected  in  these  schools,  signs  are  not  lacking  of 
the  interest  taken  in  their  temporal  welfare.  Many 
receive  gifts  of  clothes ;  many  are  guarded  from  vicious 
influences  in  degraded  homes  ;  and  many  form  intima- 
cies which  have  a  salutary  effect  on  their  entire  career. 
Childhood  was  never  more  sacred  in  the  world's  history 
than  it  is  now,  and  never  was  so  much  undertaken  to  pro- 
mote its  interests.  That  much  remains  to  be  done  goes 
without  the  saying;  and  that  crimes  against  innocence 
and  helplessness  are  yet  altogether  too  common  cannot 
be  denied  ;  but  if  children,  particularly  the  children  of 
the  poor,  are  treated  more  like  human  beings  than  they 
were  a  hundred  years  ago;  and  if  there  are  ''homes  " 
and  ''feasts"  for  bootblacks  and  newsboys;  and  if  there 
are  refuges  for  waifs,  and  free  schools;  and  if  the  hours 
of  toil  have  been  reduced  and  better  treatment  secured, 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  211 

it  is  largely  due  and  primarily  due  to  the  institution  of 
the  Sabbath-school. 

But  if  Robert  Raikes  may  be  regarded  in  a  very  real 
sense  as  the  harbinger  of  modern  religious  humanitari- 
anism,  he  had  a  notable  successor  in  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper,  the  seventh  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  whose  abun- 
dant labors  on  behalf  of  the  wretched  entitle  him  to  be 
classed  among  the  foremost  benefactors  of  mankind. 
Of  him,  the  Duke  of  Argyle  testified  in  the  upper 
chamber  of  Parliament  :  *'  My  Lords  and  Gentlemen  : 
All  the  great  reforms  of  the  past  fifty  years  have  been 
brought  about,  not  by  the  Liberal  party,  nor  by  the 
Tory  party,  but  by  the  labors  of  one  man,  the  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury."  He  might  have  added  that,  though  they 
were  born  of  the  Christian  spirit,  they  were  not  accom- 
plished by  the  Christian  church,  which,  unhappily,  was 
sometimes  found  to  be  in  antagonism.  Nevertheless, 
let  us  not  forget  that  Shaftesbury,  like  John  Howard 
and  Clarkson,  was  a  devout  and  humble  follower  of  our 
Lord.  If  the  church  has  not  led,  and  if  she  has  blindly 
opposed,  the  heart  of  Christ  in  her  members  has  wrought 
great  things  and  prepared  the  way  for  her  ultimate 
awakening.  When  this  eminent  man  was  offered  a 
place  in  the  government,  he  replied  :  ''  I  cannot  satisfy 
myself  that  to  accept  office  is  a  divine  call;  but  I  am 
satisfied  that  God  has  called  me  to  labor  among  the 
poor."  Later  on,  in  similar  circumstances,  he  said : 
''  One  million  and  six  hundred  thousand  operatives  are 
still  excluded  from  the  benefits  of  the  factory  acts ;  and 
so  long  as  they  are  unprotected,  I  cannot  take  office." 

From  such  a  spirit,  much  might  be  expected;  and 
his  life  did   not   belie  the  promise  of  his  words.      His 


212      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

first  iinportant  speech  in  Parliament  was  on  behalf  of 
the  lunatics,  whose  condition  early  in  this  century  was 
deplorable.  They  were  dealt  with  most  cruelly.  Many 
of  them  were  chained  to  walls  in  dark  cells,  had  no  other 
bed  than  a  truss  of  straw,  and  were  visited  by  keepers, 
whip  in  hand,  who  lashed  them  into  submission.  Some 
patients  were  bound  in  wells,  and  the  water  made  to  rise 
until  it  reached  their  chin.  Women  were  flogged  as  well 
as  men,  were  confined  in  iron  cages,  were  whirled  at 
frightful  speed  in  rotary  chairs,  and  were  often  exposed 
in  all  their  agony  and  degradation  to  the  eyes  of  the 
curious.  To  have  been  instrumental  in  abolishing  these 
tortures  and  the  system  that  rendered  them  jDossible 
was  enough  to  endear  the  name  of  the  heroic  friend  of 
humanity  to  all  ages.  But  Shaftesbury's  labors  went 
farther.  In  1833  he  began  the  great  work  of  factory 
legislation,  and  specially  concerned  himself  for  the  de- 
liverance from  the  curse  of  industrial  slavery.  With 
the  invention  of  machinery,  a  demand  for  child-labor 
was  created.  Large  numbers  of  children  were  sent 
from  the  workhouses  of  great  cities  and  placed  in  mills 
as  apprentices,  and  a  horrible  traffic  was  inaugurated. 
Jobbers  scoured  the  country  and  bought  up  children, 
and  these  were  handed  over  to  factories,  where  multi- 
tudes perished  under  the  toil  and  the  punishments 
ordained  by  remorseless  taskmasters.  While  England 
was  aflame  with  zeal  for  the  abolition  of  African  slavery, 
she  was  indifferent  to  the  bondage  and  degradation  of 
her  own  white  children.  In  one  of  his  addresses.  Earl 
Shaftesbury  reminded  the  House  that,  ''when  in  its  wis- 
dom and  mercy  it  decided  that  forty-five  hours  in  a  week 
was  a  term  of  labor  long  enough  for  an  adult  Negro,  it 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  21  3 

would  not  now  be  unbecoming  to  consider  whether 
sixty-nine  hours  a  week  were  not  too  many  for  the 
children  of  the  British  Empire."  ^  After  weary  and 
anxious  disputations,  not  unmixed  with  many  adverse 
criticisms,  the  children's  friend  succeeded  in  at  least 
ameliorating  their  condition.  He  also  did  much  for  the 
benefit  of  miners  and  other  laborers  whose  pursuits 
exposed  them  to  peculiar  hardships  ;  and  we  may  gain 
an  idea  of  the  difficulties  he  had  to  overcome  and  of  his 
loneliness  in  his  humane  undertakings  from  a  few  of  his 
own  recorded  experiences  and  impressions.      He  writes  : 

In  few  instances  did  any  mill-owner  appear  on  the  platform 
with  me  ;  in  still  fewer  the  ministers  of  any  religious  denomina- 
tion, at  first  not  one  except  the  Rev.  Mr.  Bull,  of  Brierly,  near 
Bradford  ;  and  even  to  the  last,  very  few  :  so  cowed  were  they  (or  in 
themselves  so  indifferent)  by  the  overwhelming  influence  of  the 
cotton  lords.  .  .  I  had  more  aid  from  the  medical  than  the  divine 
profession,  .  .  Last  night  pushed  the  bill  through  committee  ;  a 
feeble  and  discreditable  opposition  !  "Sinners"  were  with  me, 
"saints"  against  me — strange  contradiction  in  human  nature. 
.  .  .  Bill  passed  through  the  committee  last  night.  In  this  work, 
which  should  have  occupied  one  hour,  they  spent  nearly  six, 
and  left  it  far  worse  than  they  found  it  ;  never  have  1  seen  such 
a  display  of  selfishness,  frigidity  to  every  human  sentiment,  such 
ready  and  happy  self-delusion.  Three  bishops  only  present,  Chi- 
chester (Gilbert),  Norwich  (Stanley),  Gloucester  (Monk),  who 
came  late,  but  he  intended  well.  The  Bishop  of  London  and 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  went  away  !  It  is  m.y  lot,  should  I, 
by  God's  grace  live  so  long,  to  be  hereafter  among  them  ;  but 
may  he  avert  the  day  on  which  my  means  of  utility  in  public  life 
would  be  forever  concluded  !  ^ 

We  could  have  wished  that  these  reforms  had  been 

1  Bingham,  "  Life  of  Seventh  Earl  of  Shaftesbury."         ^  /^/^ 


214      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

formally  and  officially  inspired  by  the  church.  Still, 
orginating  as  they  did  among  her  children,  they  may  be 
regarded  as  symptomatic  of  an  unconscious  restlessness 
that  would  bring  her  ultimately  to  a  sense  of  her  re- 
sponsibility. This  becomes  more  apparent  in  the  agita- 
tions which  led  to  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  In  these,  the  church  seemed  to 
come  more  rapidly  to  an  appreciation  of  her  duty  toward 
the  oppressed  than  in  other  movements.  She  found 
her  conscience  quickly  in  England  and  America,  and  in 
America,  South  as  well  as  North,  was  influenced  by  it 
before  the  admission  of  Missouri  (1820)  into  the  Union 
as  a  Slave  State,  and  up  to  the  alleged  tremendous  dis- 
covery made  by  Rev.  James  Smylie  about  1833,  that 
American  slavery  was  sanctioned  by  the  word  of  God. 
That  one  man  put  back  the  cause  of  civilization  some 
thirty  years,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  devastations 
and  misery  of  civil  war.  What  a  contrast  between  this 
Presbyterian  preacher  and  Thomas  Clarkson,  who,  in  a 
Latin  essay  discussed  before  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge (1785)  the  question,  "Is  Involuntary  Servitude 
Justifiable .?  "  He  maintained  that  it  was  morally  un- 
lawful; but  as  he  was  returning  home  to  London,  he 
was  confronted  by  his  own  conclusion,  and  was  agitated 
in  his  mind  by  the  very  direct  interrogation  that  could 
not  be  averted  :  *'  If  the  slave  trade  be  an  iniquity,  is 
it  not  my  duty  to  fight  against  it  ? "  There  was  only 
one  possible  answer  to  such  a  soul  as  his.  He  plunged 
into  the  conflict.  Soon  he  was  joined  by  Granville 
Sharpe,  William  Wilberforce,  and  Zachary  Macaulay ; 
and  before  they  died,  they  had  the  joy  of  knowing  that 
they  had  saved  England  from  "  the  guilt  of  using  the 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  215 

arm  of  freedom  to  rivet  the  fetters  of  the  slave."  On 
the  other  hand,  this  Smyhe,  by  his  astounding  discovery, 
obscured  the  moral  judgment  of  a  great  people,  became 
the  leader  in  the  blackest  apostasy  of  our  times,  and 
precipitated  a  nation  into  a  war  which,  for  suffering  and 
for  expenditure  in  blood  and  treasure,  has  few  parallels 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  As  we  recall  his  name 
for  a  moment,  we  may.be  excused  for  quoting  from 
Whittier  concerning  such  as  he  : 

Just  God  ! — and  these  are  they 

Who  minister  at  thine  altar,  God  of  right  ! 

Men  who  their  hands  with  prayer  and  blessing  lay 
On  Israel's  ark  of  light  ! 

What  !  servants  of  thy  own 

Merciful  Son,  who  came  to  seek  and  save 
The  homeless  and  the  outcast, — fettering  down 

The  tasked  and  plundered  slave  ! 

But  neither  he  nor  they  were  representative  of  the  best 
life  of  the  church  in  these  dark  times.  Before  the 
enormity  of  the  iniquity,  even  her  conservatism  at  last 
gave  way ;  and  while  not  a  few  of  her  eminent  clergy, 
whose  interests  were  closely  identified  with  "  the  pecu- 
liar institution,"  upheld  its  existence,  her  heart  could 
not  endure  the  sighing  of  the  bondsmen  and  revolted 
from  the  stories  of  escaping  slaves,  of  bloodhounds, 
whipping-posts,  and  female  dishonor.  The  moral  con- 
vulsion through  which  she  passed  was  an  omen  of 
better  things.  She  never  could  be  again  altogether  as 
she  had  been.  Her  sleep  had  been  more  than  dis- 
turbed.     She  began  to  rub  her  eyes — to  think. 

May  I  not  here  speak  in  terms  of  highest  admiration 


2l6      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

of  two  leaders  in  America,  Theodore  Parker  and  Henry 
Ward  Beecher,  who  had  much  to  do  in  compelling  her 
to  think  ?  Neither  of  these  great  preachers  was  regarded 
as  entirely  orthodox  in  his  respective  communion.  The 
Unitarian  clergy  hesitated  to  follow  Parker  in  some  of 
his  theological  views,  which  led  Dr.  Channing  to  ex- 
claim, "  Now  we  have  a  Unitarian  orthodoxy!  "  and  not 
a  few  evangelical  ministers  w^re  equally  embarrassed 
by  Beecher's  doctrinal  opinions.  But  when  they  raised 
their  voices  against  slavery,  it  was  as  a  trumpet  blast  com- 
manding at  once  the  attention  of  all  parties  and  of  all 
schools  of  religious  opinion.  They  were  veritable  "  Sons 
of  Thunder."  Notwithstanding  the  suspicion  and  prej- 
udice that  assailed  them,  they  carried  conviction  with 
them  and  startled  multitudes  of  professed  Christians 
out  of  their  apathy.  They  made  multitudes  in  the 
church  and  beyond  the  church  conscious  of  the  bar- 
barity and  infamy  of  slavery,  and,  in  a  very  real  sense, 
were  the  leaders  in  the  crusade  for  its  overthrow. 

Curiously  enough,  Governor  Oglethorpe,  in  the  short- 
lived constitution  of  the  earliest  colonial  government  of 
Georgia,  1736,  provided  not  only  for  the  prohibition  of 
slavery  but  for  the  prohibition  of  spirituous  liquors  as 
well.  He  appears  to  have  discerned  an  affinity  between 
these  two  evils;  and  the  church,  during  these  later 
days,  has  felt  very  much  as  he  did.  As  she  became 
more  opposed  to  chattel-slavery,  she  became  more  con- 
vinced that  slavery  to  strong  drink  was  a  similar  curse ; 
and  hence,  from  1826,  when  the  American  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Temperance  was  formed,  to  the  pres- 
ent, she  has  been  becoming  more  and  more  sensible  of 
the  ruinous  effects  of  alcohol  and  more  and  more  trou- 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  2\'] 

bied  about  their  prevalence  and  continuance.  Organi- 
zation has  followed  organization  for  the  suppression  of 
drunkenness  and  for  the  emancipation  of  humanity  from 
the  power  of  senseless  appetite.  Several  of  these  con- 
certed movements  have  originated  among  those  who  did 
not  claim  to  act  in  the  name  of  Christianity ;  but  others, 
and  in  my  opinion  the  most  potent,  have  from  the  first 
acknowledged  the  influence  of  Christ  and  his  Spirit. 
Among  these  pre-eminence  must  be  given  to  the  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union,  which  was  born  of  the 
fiery  crusade  which  startled  Ohio,  women  invading 
liquor  saloons  and  praying  there  for  God  to  arrest  the 
devilish  traffic,  and  which  gave  to  the  cause  one  peerless 
leader  in  the  person  of  Frances  E.  Willard.  The  good 
accomplished  by  this  vast  organization  is  incalculable; 
and  though  the  difficulties  in  its  way  are  yet  enormous, 
it  seems  more  than  probable  that  ultimate  victory  will 
crown  its  labors  and  sacrifices.  Thus  the  church,  by 
the  humanitarian  efforts  of  her  individual  members,  has 
been  shaken  out  of  her  apathy ;  has  been  overtaken  by 
a  profound  dissatisfaction  with  her  own  apparent  impo- 
tence ;  and  has  been  led  into  those  inquiries  relative  to 
the  nature  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  on  earth  which 
are  compelling  her  to  realize  the  character  and  greatness 
of  her  social  mission. 

To  what  special  services,  to  what  particular  duties, 
do  these  inquiries  seem  to  point }  What  fields  for  im- 
mediate husbandry  do  they  open  up,  what  enterprises 
and  undertakings  do  they  naturally  prompt  ?  They 
certainly  call  for  a  more  thorough  application  of  the 
principles  of  the  kingdom  to  the  life  and  organization 
of  the  church  herself.      I  have  already  suggested  that 


2l8      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  New  Testament  contemplates  that  she  herself  shall 
furnish  an  example  of  what  society  as  a  whole  should 
be ;  that  she  shall  illustrate  and  present  a  working 
model  of  the  ultimate  rule  of  Christ  in  the  world  at 
large.  When  one  comes  announcing  a  new  social  order, 
all  persons  interested  have  a  right  to  demand  a  reason- 
able demonstration  of  its  feasibility ;  and  if  that  is  not 
forthcoming,  they  may  be  excused  if  they  entertain  seri- 
ous doubts  of  its  practicality.  How  is  conviction  to 
be  created,  if  not  by  proof  ?  and  how  are  men  and 
women  to  be  drawn  to  a  novel  way,  if  no  one  takes 
pains  to  show  its  advantages  over  the  path  they  are 
treading  ?  Professors  of  religion  have  never,  unless  in 
the  primitive  age  of  the  church  and  among  a  few  ob- 
scure communities  that  have  occasionally  attempted  to 
revive  primitive  piety,  realized  fully  the  wisdom  and 
necessity  of  this  course.  They  have  announced  millen- 
niums when  the  world  shall  be  converted,  and  golden 
days  on  earth  when  the  race  shall  love  God;  but  they 
have  not  worked  out  the  millennial  ideal  among  them- 
selves, nor  given  us  a  specimen  of  what  the  Golden  Era 
will  be  like.  And  yet  they  claim  to  be  converted. 
They  profess  to  be  new  creatures  in  Christ  Jesus.  I 
am  not  saying  that  their  average  morality  is  not  higher 
than  that  which  obtains  among  worldly  people ;  neither 
am  I  denying  to  many  among  them  exalted  motives  and 
self-sacrificing  devotion.  I  am  the  friend  of  the  church 
and  not  her  enemy.  Take  her  all  in  all  and  she  has 
never  been  matched  by  any  other  society  on  earth  ;  but 
only  the  blindest  kind  of  adulation  would  ever  dream  of 
affirming  that  we  see  in  her  to-day  what  Christ  has  pur- 
posed as   the  final   perfection  of   human  society.      The 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  219 

millennium  glory  must  surely  transcend  both  her  holi- 
ness and  her  happiness.  What  littleness  often  dis- 
figures her  plans  !  What  meagreness  of  view  and  of 
gift  frequently  degrades  her  enterprises  !  What  petty 
jealousies  and  factional  fights  repeatedly  disturb  her 
peace  !  A  church  misunderstanding  is  the  dread  of 
every  thoughtful  soul,  because  of  the  unreasonableness, 
obstinacy,  and  bitterness  it  usually  develops.  In  a  few 
hours,  the  work  of  years  will  be  undone  by  irascible, 
irresponsible,  and  irresolute  counsels.  What  is  most 
horrible  about  these  quarrels  is  that  they  seem  to  pos- 
sess the  fatal  power  of  quickening  the  latent  cunning 
and  maliciousness  of  man's  nature  ;  and  the  most  devil- 
ish methods  are  invoked,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  to 
achieve  a  partisan  victory.  I  have  known  ministers  to 
be  ruined  by  the  machinations  of  virulent  foes  ;  I  have 
known  worthy  people  by  the  score  to  exile  themselves 
from  their  home  church  to  escape  the  monstrous  as- 
sumptions of  some  office-bearers  ;  and  I  have  known  the 
minutes  of  a  church  record  to  be  expunged,  that  the 
tortuous  scheming  of  a  ''  leading  brother  "  might  never 
rise  against  him.  I  have  seen  so  much  that  is  humil- 
iating and  appalling,  and  have  learned  so  much  of  the 
black  doings  of  the  Holy  Office,  of  the  Roman  Curia, 
and  of  Oxford  deceptions,  that  I  would  rather  brave  a 
tempest  any  day,  or  face  a  flaming  battery  of  artillery, 
than  undertake  to  deal  with  excited  Christians  who  are 
plotting  against  each  other. 

But  even  when  cataclysms  are  avoided,  the  calm  is 
not  exactly  what  it  ought  to  be.  Inequalities  at  times 
are  painfully  apparent.  Matrons  take  very  little  inter- 
est in  the  social  well-being  of  young  women,  and  occa- 


220      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

sionally  put  obstacles  in  the  way  of  their  helping  them- 
selves, or  discourage  them  by  their  pin-prick  criticisms. 
Fathers  and  prominent  business  men  do  not  usually 
concern  themselves  about  the  needs  and  prospects  of 
young  Christian  men.  They  come  to  their  pews,  do 
what  they  call  "worship  God,"  and  manifest  no  special 
interest  in  their  youthful  brother.  Fraternity,  while 
openly  professed,  is  not  always  practised  as  it  should 
be  ;  and  he  who  relies  on  it  to  assist  him  in  the  evil 
day  will  often  be  disappointed.  While,  in  all  of  these 
respects,  the  life  of  the  church  is  higher  and  nobler 
than  the  life  of  the  world  ;  and  while  it  affords  here  and 
and  there  glimpses  of  an  earnest  endeavor  to  conform 
to  our  Lord's  ideal ;  and  while  these  endeavors  are  be- 
coming more  frequent,  nevertheless,  looking  on  it  as  it 
is  even  now,  may  not  the  observer  be  excused  if  he 
wonders  whether  what  he  sees  is  really  what  Christ 
meant  by  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  doubts  whether 
the  adoption  by  society  of  the  current  church  life  would 
advance  it  much  farther  on  the  way  to  peacefulness 
and  happiness  ? 

And  is  this  Hule  all  that  was  to  be  ? 

Where  is  the  gloriously  decisive  change, 

The  immeasurable  metamorphosis 

Of  human  clay  to  divine  gold,  we  looked 

Should  in  some  poor  sort  justify  the  price? 

Had  a  mere  adept  of  the  Rosy  Cross 

Spent  his  life  to  consummate  the  Great  Work, 

Would  we  not  start  to  see  the  stuff  it  touched 

Yield  not  a  grain  more  than  the  vulgar  got 

By  the  old  smelting  process  years  ago  ? 

If  this  were  sad  to  see  in  just  the  sage 

Who  should  profess  so  much,  perform  no  more, 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  221 

What  is  it  when  suspected  in  that  Power 
Who  undertook  to  make  and  made  the  world, 
Devised  and  did  effect  man,  body  and  soul, 
Ordained  salvation  for  them  both,  and  yet — 
Well,  is  the  thing  we  see  salvation  ? 

It  is  the  immediate  business  of  the  church  to  answer 
No,  and  to  answer  in  the  accents  of  practical  reform. 
She  has  purged  herself  from  many  gross  evils  that 
afflicted  her  in  the  eighteenth  century ;  she  has  in 
some  respects  advanced  in  righteousness  and  benevo- 
lence during  the  present  century ;  but  it  remains  for 
her  to  undertake  the  complete  realization  in  every  detail 
of  her  communion  of  what  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is, 
according  to  the  teachings  of  its  King.  Until  she  does 
this,  her  social  influence  will  necessarily  be  curtailed 
and  impaired.  ''  Show  us  just  what  you  mean,"  will  be 
the  cry  that  will  constantly  impede  her  benevolent  ex- 
ertions when  seeking  to  rescue  cities  and  towns  from 
their  mischievous  methods.  She  must  first  be  the 
kingdom  of  God  herself,  if  she  is  to  succeed  in  estab- 
lishing the  kingdom  of  God  where  now  the  empire  of 
darkness  reigns.  Were  I,  therefore,  asked,  what  is  the 
most  important  and  indispensable  thing  for  the  church 
to  undertake,  now  that  she  is  waking  up  to  her  social 
mission  .''  my  answer  would  simply  be,  Let  her  at  once 
herself  become  zvhat  she  desires  the  zvorld  to  be.  This 
is  the  first  step  :  but  it  is  not  the  last. 

Her  attention  must  not  be  exclusively  concentrated 
on  herself,  not  even  on  her  own  perfection.  She  must 
look  without  and  beyond,  as  well  as  within.  Nor  could 
she  illustrate  the  spirit  of  the  kingdom  in  any  other 
way.      If   its  genius   is   altruistic,  then   she  will   be  dis- 


222      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

closing  in  part  its  essential  nature  by  thoughtful  regard 
for  the  needs  of  the  suffering,  the  helpless,  and  the 
degraded.  This,  to  some  extent,  she  has  done  and  is 
still  doing  in  her  growing  antagonism  to  the  liquor 
traffic.  Leo  XIII.  has  described  the  total  abstinence 
pledge  as  ''a  noble  resolve  worthy  of  all  commenda- 
tion," and  has  stated  that  "drink  drags  down  number- 
less souls  to  perdition."  Cardinal  Manning  declared 
that  the  principal  thing  he  had  learned  during  thirty- 
five  years  in  London  was  that  ''  the  chief  bar  to  the 
working  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  souls  of  men  is  in- 
toxicating drink."  And  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  used 
this  decisive  language  :  "  It  is  absolutely  impossible, 
permanently  or  considerably,  to  relieve  poverty  until  we 
have  got  rid  of  the  drink  curse."  Mr.  Charles  Booth, 
the  eminent  statistician,  regards  it  as  "  the  most  pro- 
lific of  all  the  causes  of  misery  and  wretchedness." 
How  can  it  be  otherwise  ?  Think  for  a  moment  on  the 
fact  that  the  working  classes  in  Great  Britain  spend 
annually  on  this  pernicious  superfluity  ^70,000,000. 
Can  we  not  understand  what  John  Bright  meant  when 
he  said,  could  such  waste  as  this  be  averted,  England 
would  speedily  become  a  blooming  Eden  ?  The  more 
that  is  human  of  this  evil,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to 
conceive  of  the  possible  regeneration  of  society  until  it 
is  suppressed. 

Consider  some  pathetic  and  instructive  figures.  In 
a  single  year,  one  person  in  every  thirty  was  arrested 
in  Liverpool  for  drunkenness ;  one  in  every  thirty-eight, 
in  Manchester  ;  one  person  in  twenty-four,  in  Dublin  ; 
while  in  New  York,  some  fifty  thousand  cases  were  re- 
ported by  the  police,  and  twenty-six  thousand  one  hun- 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  223 

dred  and  fifty-seven  in  Boston.  '*In  some  parts  of 
London,  there  is  one  public-house  for  every  thirty-nine 
other  houses;  and  in  some  parts  of  Dublin,  there  is  one 
for  every  twenty-five.  It  has  been  calculated  that  the 
public-houses  of  Dublin,  if  placed  side  by  side  and 
allowed  a  frontage  of  seven  yards  each,  would  form  a 
street  five  miles  long."  '  Ireland  spends  about  eleven 
millions  sterling  a  year  for  liquor,  being  more  than  the 
entire  rental  of  the  country,  and  then  wonders  at  her 
continued  impecuniousness.  Boston  licenses  nine  hun- 
dred and  ninety-two  saloons,  and  some  localities  she 
seems  intent  on  ruining  by  their  multiplication.  Within 
a  radius  of  one  thousand  feet,  there  are,  in  a  Roxbury 
neighborhood,  eighteen  saloons,  sixteen  druggists,  and 
three  groceries  where  liquor  can  be  obtained.  When 
sixteen  of  these  rum-holes  had  been  established,  the 
citizens  pleaded  that  no  more  might  be  opened ;  but  the 
commissioners  straightway  added  two  more  to  the  list. 
As  a  result  of  this  concentration,  property  has  declined 
in  value,  and  moral  deterioration  has  set  in.  This  case 
is  very  instructive.  It  shows  how  little  help  may  be 
expected  for  necessary  reforms  from  the  officials  of 
communities  as  enlightened  as  the  capital  of  New  Eng- 
land. What  avail  our  efforts  and  the  heroic  endeavors 
of  Salvation  Armies  to  clean  up  districts  and  destroy 
social  plague-spots,  if  the  representatives  of  municipal 
order  go  to  work  and  create  them  in  some  other  part  of 
the  town?  This  is  what  is  being  done  in  Roxbury. 
There  is  not  a  saloon  on  Commonwealth  Avenue  or  on 
Beacon  Street,  whose  dwellers  are  no  more  total  ab- 
stainers than  they  are  a  little  farther  off;  why,  then,  are 

^Nicholas,    "Christianity  and  Socialism,"  pp.  172-174. 


2  24      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

eighteen  saloons  considered  necessary  within  a  radius 
of  one  thousand  feet  m  another  neighborhood  ?  The 
property  owners  do  not  desire  them,  the  heads  of  fam- 
ihes  deplore  them;  but  the  authorities  go  on  just  the 
same  rendermg  the  locality  darker  and  more  wretched. 
Is  there  no  relief  from  such  manifest  disregard  of  the 
well-being  of  a  community  ?  Opportunity  is  offered  here 
for  united  action  on  the  part  of  all  Christian  denomina- 
tions. By  and  by  they  will  be  criticised  for  not  stamp- 
ing out  slum  conditions;  but  why  should  they  attempt 
the  task,  when  reputable  municipal  officials  will  speedily 
lend  themselves  to  the  development  of  the  same  condi- 
tions elsewhere.-*  This  struggle  between  the  citizens 
and  the  commissioners  brings  into  relief  the  truth  that 
the  liquor  business  is  illegitimate,  a  destroyer  of  pros- 
perity, and  a  corrupter  of  morals.  Between  it  and  the 
church  enduring  peace  is  impossible.  Either  the 
church  or  the  saloon  must  go.  If  the  church  does  not 
exterminate  the  saloon,  the  saloon  will  exterminate  the 
church.  If  she  falters  in  her  antagonism,  not  only  is 
the  world  lost  but  she  is  lost  as  well.  No  changes  in 
the  industrial  system,  no  abrogation  of  trusts,  no  ad- 
vance in  wages,  will  permanently  help  society,  so  long 
as  the  liquor  traffic  continues  as  it  is  and  city  officials 
co-operate  with  it  in  impoverishing  the  people,  impair- 
ing the  value  of  property,  and  in  developing  new  centers 
of  vice  and  crime. 

The  proper  housing  of  the  poor  is  another  practical 
measure  that  is  entitled  to  the  heartiest  support  of  the 
church.  What  kind  of  home  does  our  civilization  af- 
ford the  workman  ?  This  is  a  question  worthy  of  serious 
thought ;  for  if  we  are  influenced  by  our  environment, 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  225 

what  must  be  the  effect  of  overcrowding  and  of  inade- 
quate sanitation?  It  is  reported  that  twenty-two  per 
cent,  of  Scottish  families  still  dwell  in  a  single  room; 
and  in  the  case  of  Glasgow,  the  proportion  rises  to 
thirty-three  per  cent.  ''Altogether,  there  are  in  Glas- 
gow over  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand,  and  in  all 
Scotland  five  hundred  and  sixty  thousand,  persons  who  do 
not  know  the  decency  of  even  a  two-roomed  house."  ^  In 
favorable  comparison  with  this  condition  of  things,  the 
number  of  families  inhabiting  single  rooms  in  Boston  is 
only  one  thousand  and  fifty-three,  or  less  than  one  and 
one-half  per  cent,  as  against  Glasgow's  thirty-three  per 
cent.  *'  Out  of  a  total  of  six  million  one  hundred  and 
thirty-one  thousand  and  one  separate  tenements  enumer- 
ated in  England  and  Wales  in  1891,  two  hundred  and 
eighty-six  thousand  nine  hundred  and  forty-six  or  four 
and  sixty-eight  one  hundredths  per  cent,  consisted  of  one 
room  only,  and  these  contained  no  fewer  than  six  hun- 
dred and  forty  thousand  four  hundred  and  ten  persons 
or  two  and  two-tenths  per  cent,  of  the  whole  popula- 
tion, with  the  high  average  of  two  and  twenty-three  one 
hundredths  persons  per  room."  In  certain  portions  of 
New  York,  this  overcrowding  is  carried  to  a  dangerous 
limit;  and  it  is  surprising  how  much  of  it  exists  in 
smaller  communities  and  in  various  parts  of  the  civilized 
world.  What  this  herding  of  human  beings  means 
has,  perhaps,  never  been  more  vividly  expressed  than  by 
Carlyle  in  a  striking  passage  from  "Sartor  Resartus"  : 

Oh,  under  that  hideous  coverlit  of  vapours,  and  putrefactions, 
and  unimaginable  gases,  what  a  fermenting-vat  lies  simmering 
and  hid  !     The  joyful  and  sorrowful  are  there  ;    men  are  dying 

^Sidney  Webb,  "Labour  in  the  Longest  Reign." 
P 


226      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

there  ;  men  are  lacing  born  ;  men  are  praying.  On  the  other  side 
of  a  brick  partition  men  are  cursing  ;  and  around  them  all  is  the 
vast,  void  night.  .  .  Wretchedness  cowers  into  truckle-beds,  or 
shivers  hunger-stricken  into  its  lair  of  straw.  .  .  Riot  cries  aloud, 
and  staggers  and  swaggers  in  his  rank  dens  of  shame  ;  and  the 
mother,  with  streaming  hair,  kneels  over  her  pallid,  dying  infant, 
whose  cracked  lips  only  her  tears  now  moisten.  All  these  heaped 
and  huddled  together,  with  nothing  but  a  little  carpentry  and 
masonry  between  them  ;  crammed  in  like  salted  fish  in  their  bar- 
rel ;  or  weltering,  shall  I  say,  like  an  Egyptian  pitcher  of  tamed 
vipers,  each  struggling  to  get  its  head  above  the  others  ;  such 
work  goes  on  under  that  smoke-counterpane. 

To  some  persons  this  speech  will  seem  hysterical 
or  over-rhetorical ;  for  there  is  to-day  a  demand  that 
everything  like  color  be  effaced  from  serious  compo- 
sition. And  yet  it  is  possible  that  this  craving  for 
simplicity  is  not  inspired  by  a  refined  taste  calling  for 
a  pure  style  in  literature,  when  there  is  so  much  of  the 
garish  rhetorical  and  flamboyant  in  the  decorations, 
displays,  and  luxuries  of  society ;  but  rather  may  be  due 
to  the  strong  grip  the  commonplace  has  upon  modern 
civilization,  which  always  tends  to  cramp  literary  genius, 
and  which  likewise  tends  to  repress  fervent  sympathy 
on  behalf  of  the  distressed. 

But,  however  Carlyle's  language  may  be  criticised,  I 
lean  bear  witness  from  personal  observation  that  his  de- 
scription lies  well  within  the  boundaries  of  fact.  I  have 
visited  the  squalid  tenements  where  so  many  millions  of 
our  fellow-beings  are  housed,  in  London,  Paris,  New 
York,  Madrid,  Boston,  and  Glasgow,  and  can  report 
that,  until  a  change  is  brought  about ;  until  the  shiver- 
ing, wizened  girls  and  tattered  and  profane  boys,  who 
are  old  in  cunning  before  they  are  conscious  of  inno- 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  22/ 

cence,  are  taken  away  from  back  courts  and  stenching 
rooms ;  and  until  conditions  for  decent  living  can  be 
furnished  to  adults,  and  the  close-packed  buildings 
where  obscenity,  filth,  and  immorality  are  fostered  shall 
cease  to  darken  earth  and  insult  the  light, — no  reason- 
able hope  can  be  entertained  of  permanent  social  re- 
generation. 

But  what  can  the  church  do?  She  can  protest. 
More  than  that,  she  can  appeal  to  her  millionaires  to 
leave  college  building  alone  for  a  while  and  devote  their 
business  sagacity  and  tact  and  money  to  the  more  cry- 
ing need  of  the  masses  for  cleaner,  fresher,  more  com- 
modious, and  more  attractive  dwellings.  Higher  educa- 
tion is  of  vast  importance ;  but  I  venture  to  assert  of 
higher  moment  still,  as  touching  the  health  and  moral 
life  of  the  population,  is  the  erection  of  houses  suitable 
for  homes, — homes  being  next  to  impossible  in  bad- 
smelling,  ill-ventilated,  fever-breeding  one-room  tene- 
ments. Moreover,  she  can  encourage  her  own  mem- 
bers to  combine  in  helping  the  poor  to  secure  improved 
accommodations.  Her  missionaries,  when  they  pene- 
trate tenement  districts,  can  carry  information  to  their 
inhabitants  that  will  put  them  on  their  guard  and 
arouse  in  them  a  desire  for  better  surroundings  and  even 
unite  them  in  demanding  fairer  treatment  from  their 
landlords ;  and  if  she  is  herself  the  possessor  of  such 
property,  she  is  under  obligation  to  Christ  not  to  use  it 
as  one  great  church  corporation  has  used  such  a  trust 
in  New  York, — to  make  all  the  money  she  can, — but  to 
illustrate  how  tenants  should  be  dealt  with  and  the  care 
that  should  be  taken  in  providing  them  with  dwellings 
free  from  objectionable  and  disgusting  features. 


228      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

But  when  these  measures  have  been  advocated  and 
these  and  similar  reforms  have  been  entered  on,  there 
yet  remains  the  duty  of  socializing  industry  and  com- 
merce. By  the  word  ''socializing"  I  do  not  mean  in 
full  what  State  socialists  mean  when  they  employ  the 
term  ;  not  the  organization  of  labor  after  the  pattern  of 
a  military  establishment,  and  entailing  many  of  the  evils 
which  render  militarism  an  unmitigated  curse,  but  rather 
a  voluntary  and  free  combination  and  pooling  of  inter- 
ests in  which  capital  and  labor  come  to  a  more  equal 
share  in  profits  than  is  seemingly  possible  under  the 
present  system.  Public  ownership  of  some  franchises 
now  enjoyed  by  corporations  may  also  be  demanded  by 
this  ideal ;  for  the  ideal  is  irreconcilable  with  every 
method  by  which  a  few  favored  individuals  can  become 
enormously  wealthy  at  the  expense  of  the  helpless 
many.  No  government  has  the  moral  right  to  invest  a 
company  of  men  with  powers  which  enable  them  to 
coin  money  out  of  the  needs  of  the  people,  and  which 
practically  doom  the  people  to  suffering  or  to  unques- 
tioning acquiescence  in  their  exactions.  But  whether 
collectivism  is  indispensable  to  the  success  of  co-opera- 
tion, circumstances  will  speedily  demonstrate.  In  the 
meanwhile,  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  evident  that 
only  changes  along  the  line  of  co-operation  can  allay 
the  growing  discontent  and  harmonize  the  conflicting 
claims  of  capital  and  industry. 

De  Tocqueville,  with  his  usual  penetration,  has  said  : 
''When  the  people  are  overwhelmed  with  misery,  they 
are  resigned.  It  is  when  they  begin  to  hold  up  their 
heads  and  to  look  above  them  that  they  are  impelled  to 
insurrection."     They  have  reached  that  point  in  various 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  2  29 

lands,  particularly  where  the  Saxons,  the  Teutons,  and 
the  Americans  rule.  Sixty  years  ago,  their  condition 
was  immeasurably  more  deplorable  and  desperate  than 
it  is  to-day.  Wages  have  increased  almost  fifty  per 
cent,  in  the  great  centers  of  civilization,  the  hours  of 
toil  have  been  reduced,  and  available  comforts  multi- 
plied. The  working  classes  have  been  able  to  save 
millions  of  money,  and  they  are  more  respected  and 
better  educated  than  they  were  half  a  century  gone. 
But  these  gains,  which  have  benefited  so  many,  have 
tended  to  make  the  masses  conscious  of  their  right  to 
more,  and  they  seem  only  to  have  rendered  more  pal- 
pable the  grievous  inequalities  which  still  exist. 
Canon  Westcott  goes  farther  than  this,  and  adds  : 

The  silent  revolution  which  has  taken  place  within  the  cen- 
tury in  the  methods  of  production  and  distribution  has  terribly 
intensified  the  evils  which  belong  to  all  late  forms  of  civilization. 
The  great  industries  have  cheapened  luxuries  and  stimulated  the 
passion  for  them.  They  have  destroyed  the  human  fellowship  of 
craftsman  and  chief.  They  have  degraded  trade  in  a  large  de- 
gree into  speculation.  They  have  deprived  labor  of  its  thought- 
ful freedom,  and  turned  men  into  "hands."  They  have  given 
capital  a  power  of  dominion  and  growth  perilous  above  all  to  its 
possessor.^ 

It  is  the  fact  that  multitudes  of  the  common  people  are 
intelligent  enough  to  perceive  and  understand  these 
damaging  and  discouraging  features  of  the  present  in- 
dustrial system,  that  breeds  and  foments  widespread 
dissatisfaction.  Let  any  one  read  Robert  Blatch ford's 
"  Merrie  England,"  if  he  would  ascertain  how  extensive 
the  spirit  of  unrest  is,  and  how  well  informed.      This 

^  "Social  Aspects  of  Christianity." 


230      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

little  book  will  be  a  revelation  to  those  who  have  never 
thought  seriously  over  the  problems  of  their  times. 
While  it  is  inflammatory  in  its  utterances,  it  is  mainly 
righteous,  and,  in  its  cry  for  social  salvation,  faithfully 
represents  the  aspirations  of  the  neglected  masses. 
The  reader  closing  its  pages  very  likely  will  conclude, 
with  the  Bishop  of  Rochester,  that  ''  the  zones  of  enor- 
mous wealth  and  degrading  poverty,  unless  carefully 
considered,  will  presently  generate  a  tornado  which, 
when  the  storm  clears,  may  leave  a  good  deal  of  wreck- 
age behind."  The  premonitory  gusts  of  such  a  tor- 
nado he  may  detect  in  William  Morris'  ''  March  of  the 
Workers,"  which  is  itself  a  sign  of  the  times  : 

O   ye  rich  men,  hear  and  tremble  !   for  with  words  the  sound  is 

rife  ; 
Once  for  you  and  death  we  labor,  changed   henceforward  is   the 

strife  ; 
We  are  men,  and  we  shall  battle  for  the  world  of  men  and  life, 
And  our  host  is  marching  on. 

Is  it  war  then  ?     Will  ye  perish  as  the  dry  wood  on  the  fire  ? 
Is  it  peace  ?     Then  be  ye  of  us,  let  your  hope  be  our  desire. 
Come  and  live  !  for  life  awaketh,  and  the  world  shall  never  tire, 
And  hope  is  marching  on. 

It  is  the  mission  of  the  church  to  avert  the  tempest 
by  seeking  to  harmonize  its  threatening  and  mutually 
antagonistic  elements ;  but  if  she  is  to  do  anything 
effective,  she  must  realize  at  the  outset  that  the  issue 
involved  is  an  fond  an  economic  one,  and  is  not  pri- 
marily sentimental  or  religious.  Adam  Smith,  a  hun- 
dred years  ago,  taught  the  world  how  wealth  could  be  ac- 
cumulated, and  the  lesson  has  been  thoroughly  learned  ; 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  23  I 

but  to-day  the  world  needs  to  learn  how  wealth  -should 
be  distributed,  and  until  adequate  instruction  is  fur- 
nished on  this  point  it  will  be  true,  as  Lord  Beaconsfield 
declared,  that  the  unequal  distribution  of  the  fruits  of 
industry  will  divide  every  nation  into  "two  nations," 
and  they  will  differ  widely  from  each  other  in  enlighten- 
ment, safety,  and  happiness.  Nothing,  however,  will 
be  accomplished  in  this  direction,  and  no  great  econo- 
mist will  feel  free  to  speak,  if  we  assume  that  the  ex- 
isting way  of  carrying  on  production  and  the  prevailing 
notions  of  what  is  due  to  capital  are  too  venerable  and 
sacred  to  be  challenged.  Some  persons,  I  know,  speak 
of  them  with  hushed  breath,  as  though  they  were,  in  a 
deeply  mysterious  sense,  of  divine  origin  and  as  im- 
perative as  the  commandments  of  the  Decalogue.  We 
are  solemnly  warned  to  be  careful  not  to  jeopardize  their 
authority,  and  to  see  to  it  that  we  hallow  and  reverence 
the  "  laws  of  trade,"  which  are  assumed  to  be  as  wonder- 
ful and  undebatable  as  the  laws  of  nature  ;  and  yet  the 
industrial  system  of  to-day  is  comparatively  a  novelty. 
It  was  developed  from  the  ruins  of  feudalism  and  re- 
ceived its  dominant  impress  from  the  commercial  revo- 
lution that  followed  the  inventions  of  the  spinning-jenny, 
the  spinning-machine,  and  the  steam-engine.  Its  found- 
ers are  in  reality  Hargreave,  Arkwright,  and  Watt  ;  its 
spirit  is  selfishness  ;  and  its  aim,  the  accumulation  of 
wealth.  If,  therefore,  it  does  not  serve  the  true  ends  of 
progress,  the  sooner  it  is  broken  up  the  better ;  and  in 
bringing  it  to  a  termination,  no  apologies  need  be 
offered.  It  is  of  yesterday,  and  the  world  may  finally 
part  with  it  to-morrow  without  regret  and  without  the 
least  self-reproach. 


232      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

A  substitute  is  slowly  being  prepared  for  it  in  the 
co-operative  movement,  whose  birthplace  was  Rochdale, 
England,  and  whose  growth,  from  its  original  member- 
ship of  some  twenty-eight  poor  weavers  to  over  a  mil- 
lion now  enrolled,  dividing  a  profit  last  year  of  £7,000,- 
000,  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  century.  It  has  ex- 
tended its  area  and  now  embraces  France,  Germany, 
Italy,  and  Belgium.  All  that  has  been  accomplished 
has  been  wrought  since  1844,  and  in  the  face  of  viru- 
lent antagonism  not  yet  altogether  ended.  Thus  far, 
the  triumphs  achieved  by  this  new  industrial  method 
have  occurred  in  the  department  of  distribution  and  not 
to  any  great  extent  in  that  of  production.  It  is  as- 
sumed that  its  principle  will  not  work  in  the  latter. 
Such  a  judgment,  however,  is  premature.  Co-operation 
at  present  cannot  command  the  amount  of  capital  requi- 
site for  large  ventures,  and  it  has  slowly  to  make  its 
way  against  conservatism  and  "vested  interests."  It  is 
gradually  accumulating  capital,  its  leaders  are  studying 
the  various  problems  to  be  solved  and  the  perplexing 
conditions  to  be  met  in  production,  and  it  is  reasonable 
to  expect  that  ultimately  their  endeavors  will  be  crowned 
with  success.  But  though  we  may  have  to  wait  awhile 
for  the  fruit  of  their  labors,  they  are  moving  in  the  right 
direction.     John  S.  Mill  wrote,  several  years  ago  : 

The  form  of  association  which,  if  mankind  continue  to  im- 
prove, must  be  expected  in  the  end  to  predominate,  is  not  that 
which  can  exist  between  a  capitalist  as  chief  and  work-people 
without  a  voice  in  the  management,  but  the  association  of  the 
laborers  themselves  on  terms  of  equality,  collectively  owning  the 
capital  with  which  they  carry  on  their  operations,  and  under 
managers  elected  and  removable  by  themselves. 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  233 

This  passage  represents  the  genius  of  co-operation  ; 
and  toward  this  kind  of  consummation,  all  of  its  suc- 
cesses and  all  of  its  aspirations  directly  point.  Its  plans 
as  yet  may  not  be  perfect,  and  it  may  experience  de- 
feats before  it  finally  secures  victory ;  but  every  scheme 
proposed,  every  measure  submitted,  looks  toward  that 
form  of  society  which  Mill  forecasts  as  inevitable.  The 
growth  of  temperance,  the  increase  of  frugality,  the 
advance  of  intelligence  and  morality,  wherever  co-opera- 
tive principles  are  cherished,  are  in  themselves  assur- 
ances that  it  comes  closer  to  the  divine  method  for 
social  regeneration  than  any  other,  and  should  receive 
from  the  Church  of  Christ  her  hearty  approval  and 
sympathetic  support. 

Another  obligation  rests  upon  her  :  she  must  under- 
take the  reorganization  of  charity.  Doubtless  there 
will  always  be  suffering  in  the  world  and  need  for  hos- 
pitals, orphanages,  asylums,  homes  for  aged  people,  and 
refuges  for  the  wayward.  What  the  millennium  may 
have  in  store  for  us  we  are  not  to  presume  on  in  the 
present,  and  though  a  better  industrial  economy  will 
abate  the  demands  for  relief  and  reduce  them  to  the 
minimum,  we  cannot  reasonably  hope  to  be  free  from 
them  altogether.  Therefore  the  whole  subject  of  relief 
and  philanthropy  should  be  diligently  studied,  with  the 
object  in  view  of  determining  what  reforms  are  neces- 
sary in  the  present  system  and  what  changes  are  in- 
dispensable to  bring  it  into  harmony  with  the  more 
enlightened  age  on  which  we  are  entering.  There 
is  something  strangely  pathetic  in  the  number  of  bene- 
factions which  have  come  into  existence  during  the 
nineteenth  century,   most  of  them  emanating  from  or 


234      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

fostered  by  Christianity.  Our  hearts  turn  with  admira- 
tion to  the  benevolent  institutions  founded  by  George 
Mliller,  of  Bristol,  by  Doctor  Barnardo,  and  by  Charles 
IL  Spurgeon,  of  London.  But  these  gracious  and 
precious  charities  are  only  signs,  outlying  stars,  point- 
ing to  the  heavens  bestudded  with  similar  centers  of 
light  and  love.  London,  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna, 
Paris,  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  other  great 
communities,  are  distinguished  for  their  abundant  phi- 
lanthropies in  the  form  of  hospitals,  infirmaries,  dispen- 
saries, asylums,  homes  for  the  aged,  lodging-houses  for 
the  poor,  shelters  for  waifs  and  neglected  children, 
societies  for  inebriates,  for  the  protection  of  animals, 
for  the  redemption  of  fallen  women,  and  for  other 
worthy  purposes  too  numerous  to  be  specified.  In  Lon- 
don five  hundred  charitable  organizations  spend  over 
;£ 1, 000,000  annually  ($5,000,000),  and  in  New  York 
the  amount  expended  yearly  exceeds  $4,000,000,  and 
similar  sums  are  devoted  to  benevolence  in  other  com- 
munities, making,  in  all,  a  bewildering  total. 

It  is  almost  impossible,  however,  to  rely  on  figures, 
statisticians  differ  so  widely  in  their  estimates.  "  The 
Spectator  "  (London,  March  3,  1900)  quotes  from  the 
"  Official  Year  Book  of  the  Church  of  England,"  and 
gives  as  the  total  of  her  benefactions  for  one  year  spent 
in  the  interest  of  curates,  clerical  assistants,  elementary 
education,  philanthropy,  and  parochial  purposes,  the 
enormous  sum  of  ^5,398,000.  It  does  seem  as  though 
this  amount  ought  to  relieve  the  necessities  of  the 
worthy  poor  in  Great  Britain.  But  it  does  not,  and 
this  does  not  represent  the  charitable  contributions  of 
the  Nonconformists.     This  lavish  generosity  is  not  by 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  235 

any  means  restricted  to  England.  In  Germany,  for 
instance,  there  are  almost  endless  provisions  made  for 
the  succor  and  relief  of  the  distressed.  There  are  day 
nurseries,  with  one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventeen  children  and  two  thousand 
two  hundred  and  sixty-four  matrons  ;  there  are  institu- 
tions for  the  employment  of  children,  with  some  twenty- 
three  thousand  beneficiaries  ;  there  are  refuges  for 
children  injured  by  neglect,  with  twelve  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  twenty-five  dependents ;  there  are  three 
hundred  orphan  homes,  with  thirteen  thousand  inmates  ; 
there  are  temporary  quarters  for  tramps  and  for  money- 
less artisans,  helping  in  one  year  three  million  six  hun- 
dred and  eighty-eight  thousand  five  hundred  and  forty- 
eight  persons  ;  there  are  female  servants*  lodging-houses, 
supplying  annually  beds  for  upward  of  thirteen  thousand 
three  hundred  and  thirty-eight  girls  passing  from  one 
city  to  another  in  search  of  employment ;  there  are 
sailors'  missions,  waiters'  missions,  railroad  missions, 
city  missions,  Magdalen  asylums,  and  hospitals  for 
almost  every  distinct  type  of  disease. 

These  benefactions  call  for  extraordinary  outlays  in 
money  and  must  prove  a  serious  drain  on  the  resources 
of  the  people.  In  France,  Yves  Le  Querdec  reminds 
us  that  ''  devoted  men  and  women  have  established  a 
thousand  different  charities,  varying  them  according  to 
the  needs  with  an  ingenuity  and  a  generosity  equally 
marvelous,  and  multiplying  institutions,  creches,  alms- 
houses, workshops,  clubs,  orphanages,  schools,  hospitals, 
and  benevolent  societies."  Most  of  these  helpful  enter- 
prises in  France  have  been  inaugurated  by  the  benevo- 
lent among  the  Catholic  population,  just  as  in  Germany 


236      CJIRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

many  of  them  have  been  fostered  by  the  Protestants, 
and,  doubtless,  all  of  them,  either  in  the  Old  World  or 
the  New,  whether  originating  with  the  church  or  not, 
are  indebted  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity  for  their  exist- 
ence. 

All  this  is  pathetic — beautifully  and  even  tragically 
so  ;  for  these  multiplied  charities,  while  creditable  to 
the  Christian  spirit,  are  comments  on  the  sad  failure  of 
our  political  economy.  They  demonstrate  that  our  in- 
dustrial system  is  not  what  it  ought  to  be,  for,  if  it  were, 
much  that  is  now  lavished  on  charity  would  be  spent  on 
wages  and  the  recipients  would  become  more  self-reliant 
on  account  of  the  change.  Likewise  they  are  signs  of 
a  troubled  conscience,  of  an  uneasy  feeling  that  the 
evils  of  our  age  are  largely  the  outgrowth  of  bungling 
methods  and  of  a  desire,  if  possible,  to  make  atonement 
for  the  wrongs  inflicted  and  for  the  remedy  of  which, 
neither  within  the  church  nor  without,  has  an  adequate 
antidote  yet  been  provided.  What  adds  to  the  pathos 
of  it  all  is  that  there  is  an  ever-deepening  consciousness 
that  these  eleemosynary  measures  do  not  seem  to  be 
effective  in  narrowing  the  domain  of  poverty,  or  in  ma- 
terially diminishing  the  number  of  beneficiaries,  or  in 
removing  the  causes  which  have  called  them  into  opera- 
tion. What  we  may  term,  without  offense,  the  relative 
failure  of  charity,  has  disturbed  many  thoughtful  and 
humane  observers,  and,  in  France,  it  has  aroused  unusual 
interest  and  discussion. 

It  may  enable  us  to  understand  more  clearly  what  is 
meant  by  this  failure  if  we  attend  to  some  recent  utter- 
ances on  the  subject  published  in  France.  These  testi- 
monies have  a  peculiar  value,  as  they  emanate  from  a 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  237 

country  where  its  faith  has  had  much  to  do  in  shaping 
its  public  life,  and  where  science  has  been  invoked  to 
regulate  public  administrations.  One  writer  plunges 
into  the  subject  in  the  following  manner  : 

Our  Catholic  works  are  indeed  carried  on  with  wonderful  enthu- 
siasm, energy,  and  devotion.  The  amount  of  sacrifice,  of  strength 
and  money,  is  truly  prodigious.  How  is  it,  then,  that  so  much 
good  work  does  not  change  the  condition  of  society  ?  That,  in 
spite  of  so  much  work,  the  march  of  evil  is  not  arrested  ?  I  go 
farther  :  Is  it  not  in  certain  respects  quickened  ?  We  have  worked 
much  and  yet  we  have  deteriorated,  and  that  for  nearly  a  cen- 
tury.^ 

Another  writer  asserts  that  these  excessive  benefac- 
tions have  only  produced  *' hot-house  "  Christians,  while 
the  age  demands  "  open-air "  Christians.  The  same 
author  adds  :  "  We  try  to  save  a  few  individuals  without 
attempting  to  save  society.  If  only  those  who  were 
saved  had  been  able,  after  that,  to  fulfill  their  social 
duties;  but  finding  themselves  in  a  disorganized  state  of 
society,  they  have  seen  neither  opportunity  for  acting 
nor  any  employment  for  their  faculties."  ^  ''  There  is 
in  our  method  of  work,"  says  Le  Ouerdec,  "  something 
highly  injurious  to  family  life,  and  for  that  reason  this 
method  is  in  some  respects  anti-social.  Who  does  not 
see  that,  in  putting  ourselves  in  the  place  of  the  persons 
responsible,  in  assuming  their  duties,  we  have  encour- 
aged them  to  cast  off  more  and  more  their  responsibility, 
and  thus  we  have  aggravated  the  evil  ?  "  Hence  he 
concludes  :  "  In  my  opinion  it  would  be  better  to  help 
ten  mothers  to  fulfill  their  home  duties  than  to  take 

^  *M  Reculons,''  by  Student  of  Catholic  Faculties,  Lille. 
^  "  Reforvie  Sociale.^'' 


238      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

care  of  the  children  of  twenty  at  the  creche^  And  an 
intelligent  writer  in  '^  L  Univcrs''  throws  considerable 
light  on  the  reasons  for  complaint  and  discouragement 
in  these  words  : 

French  Catholics  do  not  consider  enough  the  fact  that  all  these 
charities  show  a  false  kind  of  activity,  which  is  very  remarkable 
as  well  as  a  lamentable  constitutional  weakness.  These  institu- 
tions have  for  their  object  to  supply  the  lack  or  inefficiency  of  the 
essential  institutions  of  society — family,  parish,  workshop,  com- 
mune, State.  They  offer  to  control  the  children  whom  the  parents 
do  not  control,  to  reach  the  Christians  whom  the  parish  does  not 
reach,  to  help  the  workman  whom  the  workshop  and  the  master 
do  not  help,  to  govern  the  citizens  whom  good  laws,  a  good  gov- 
ernment, and  a  good  local  administration  do  not  keep  in  order. 
From  the  moment  when  these  lacks  exist  it  is  certainly  well  to 
remedy  them,  but  in  using  remedies  let  us  realize  that  they  are 
only  temporary  and  ephemeral,  and  let  us  recognize  that  the  only 
substantial  and  permanent  philanthropic  effort  is  that  which  re- 
places society  on  its  proper  and  natural  basis  by  the  efficient 
exercise  of  their  duties  to  the  State,  of  parents,  masters,  clergy, 
and  magistrates. 

In  view  of  these  representations,  what  more  reasonable 
than  the  conclusion  of  Yves  Le  Querdec  : 

Results  certainly  are  not  wanting,  but  they  are,  according  to 
what  those  say  who  know,  very  far  from  being  what  they  ought  to 
be.  The  returns  are  not  in  proportion  to  the  strength  expended. 
If  this  fact  is  true,  and  it  appears  scarcely  to  be  doubted,  it 
means  that  our  charitable  work  is  badly  organized.  When  a  ma- 
chine consumes  too  much  fuel  for  the  work  it  does,  it  means  that 
there  is  a  defect  in  its  construction, 

The  experiences  of  the  French  reflect  with  more  or 
less  faithfulness  the  experiences  of  other  benevolent 
people,  and   a   consensus  of   opinion   would  reach   the 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  239 

same  conviction — that  **  the  machine  consumes  too 
much  fuel  for  the  work  it  does."  But  is  '*  the  defective 
construction  "  to  be  remedied,  or  must  it  be  left  just  as 
it  is  ?  Mr.  Carnegie,  the  philanthropic  millionaire,  when 
asked  why  he  gave  so  much  money  to  libraries,  is  re- 
ported to  have  answered  :  ''  I  undertake  to  help  the 
swimmers,  not  the  submerged  tenth."  And  there  is 
sound  philosophy  in  the  reply,  although  the  church 
must  not  ignore  the  submerged.  Her  chief  duty,  ad- 
mitting that  she  should  pluck  the  drowning  from  the 
depths,  is  to  assist  them  and  others  to  swim,  and  not 
undertake  the  impossible — szvim  for  tJicm.  I  am  satis- 
fied, however,  that  no  schemes  of  beneficence  will  fully 
counteract  the  evils  of  the  present  industrial  system, 
and  the  church  should  not  blind  herself  to  this  fact  and 
proceed  on  the  supposition  that  the  generous  transfu- 
sion of  her  own  blood  can  compensate  for  the  loss  sus- 
tained by  the  constant  drainage  of  the  life-current  of 
millions  through  the  mischievous  methods  of  modern 
business. 

But,  assuming  that  she  labors  honestly  for  reform 
in  this  direction,  she  should  likewise  give  more  atten- 
tion to  the  subject  of  charity.  The  great  denomina- 
tions should  come  together  and  agree  on  some  prin- 
ciple of  co-operation  in  their  benevolent  work,  so  that 
none  of  the  worthy  shall  be  neglected  and  none  of  the 
needy  be  pauperized  by  unwise  lavishness.  They  ought 
to  render  this  service  more  sacred  by  associating  it 
directly  with  the  ministrations  of  the  churches,  and  not, 
as  it  frequently  is  now,  leave  it  to  be  regarded  as  an 
obligation  which  the  commonwealth  owes  the  citizen. 
When  such  an  impression  as  this  gets  abroad,  as  in  im- 


240      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

perial  Rome,  the  number  of  indigents  who  are  shame- 
less increase  and  the  more  imperious  their  demands  be- 
come. It  is  necessary  for  the  best  interests  of  society 
that  Christianity  keep  in  her  own  hands  the  offices  of 
charity.  When  she  does  this,  when  she  is  careful  to 
instruct  the  poor,  when  she  does  not  bestow  alms  to 
increase  her  power  over  the  superstitious,  and  when 
she  is  more  anxious  that  the  recipients  of  her  bounty 
appreciate  the  sympathizing  hand  that  confers  the  gift 
than  the  gift  itself,  then  her  benefactions  will  truly 
bless.  Unhappily,  during  this  century,  she  has  given 
of  her  means,  not  always  intelligently,  and  has  been 
disposed,  in  many  cases,  to  place  the  responsibility  of 
administration  on  outside  agencies  ;  and  while  she  has 
contributed  liberally,  thousands  of  people  have  not 
credited  her  with  much  interest  in  the  work.  The  time 
has  come  for  her  to  do  her  own  work,  to  do  it  directly, 
studiously,  and  tenderly,  seeking  always,  not  merely  to 
relieve  temporary  suffering,  but  to  make  those  whom 
she  succors  self-reliant,  industrious,  and  frugal. 

A  final  service  she  is  specially  called  on  to  render  of 
social  betterment,  for  which  she  is  pre-eminently  en- 
dowed, and  without  which  no  movement  for  human 
amelioration  can  succeed.  She  can  and  she  ought  to 
foster  the  spirit  of  universal  brotherhood  everywhere. 
Nor  should  she  permit  some  seeming  theological  exi- 
gency to  interfere  with  this  gracious  work.  That  the 
necessity  for  more  fraternity  is  deep  and  crying  a  pa- 
thetic passage  in  the  *'  Autobiography  "  '  of  Mrs.  Annie 
Besant  witnesses.  Writing  of  her  own  experiences,  she 
says  : 

'  Pp.  33^,  339' 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  24 1 

The  socialist  position  sufficed  on  the  economic  side,  but  where 
to  gain  the  inspiration,  the  motive,  which  should  lead  to  the 
brotherhood  of  man  ?  Our  efforts  to  organize  bands  of  unsel- 
fish workers  had  failed.  Much,  indeed,  had  been  done,  but  there 
was  not  a  real  movement  of  self-sacrificing  devotion,  in  which 
men  worked  for  love's  sake  only  and  asked  but  to  give,  not  to 
take.  Where  was  the  material  for  the  nobler  social  order  ? 
where  the  hewn  stones  for  the  building  of  the  temple  of  man  ? 
A  great  despair  would  oppress  me  as  I  sought  for  such  a  move- 
ment and  found  it  not. 

It  is  the  exalted  business  of  the  church  to  furnish 
just  such  material,  and  the  social  edifice,  with  even  co- 
operation for  its  corner-stone,  can  never  be  built  unless 
such  hewn  stones  are  at  hand.  Her  place  is  in  the 
quarry  ;  not  there  continually  and  exclusively,  but  still 
there.  Unless  the  rough  edges  and  hard  angularities 
of  selfishness  be  removed  and  men  and  women  be  soft- 
ened and  shaped  by  love,  there  will  be  little  chance  of 
radical  changes.  Let  not  the  church  undervalue  this 
side  of  her  high  vocation  to  the  world.  To  beget  love, 
to  deepen  love,  to  reveal  the  wonderful  gospel  at  the 
heart  of  love,  and  to  awaken  the  slumbering  holy  passion 
of  love  on  behalf  of  the  degraded  and  the  lost  cannot 
be  the  least  of  her  sacred  privileges.  If  the  possession 
of  love  is  a  greater  glory  than  the  possession  of  faith 
and  hope,  then  the  creation  of  love  in  human  hearts 
must  be  a  greater  glory  still. ^  Wherever  else  the 
church  may  fail,  she  cannot  afford  to  fail  here.  The 
final  redemption  of  society  rests  on  her  faithfulness  to 
this  work.    "  Love  covers  a  multitude  of  sins."    Thouerh 

o 

she  may  fail  as  an  economist,  and  though  her  sociology 
may  be   counted   unscientific,  if   she  loves   much   and 

^  I  Cor.  13. 
Q 


242      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

brings  many  to  love  likewise  the  world  will  forgive 
much.  The  life  of  love  in  her  which  was  supremely 
in  Christ  Jesus  she  must  hasten  to  impart  to  the  multi- 
tudes around  her,  and  this  she  can  do  through  her 
unique  spiritual  ministrations  and  by  the  identification 
of  herself  with  every  cause  that  tends  to  bless  mankind. 
To  all  who  have  a  message  of  hope,  to  all  who  are  ready 
to  bear  burdens,  to  all  who  champion  the  cause  of  suf- 
fering, to  all  who  assail  entrenched  and  ancient  wrongs, 
and  to  all  who  march  in  the  vanguard  of  progress,  she 
should  show  herself  friendly.  They  should  have  no 
doubt  of  her  sympathy  and  prayers,  and  they  should 
feel,  whatever  might  befall  them,  they  could  never  lose 
her  loyal  co-operation.      Her  song  should  ever  be  : 

Press  bravely  onward  !     Not  in  vain 
Your  generous  trust  in  human  kind  ; 

The  good  which  bloodshed  could  not  gain 
Your  peaceful  zeal  shall  find. 

Press  on  !     The  triumph  shall  be  won 
Of  common  rights  and  equal  laws, 

The  glorious  dream  of  Harrington, 
And  Sidney' s  good  old  cause, 

Blessing  the  cotter  and  the  crown, 
Sweetening  worn  Labor's  bitter  cup  ; 

And,  plucking  not  the  highest  down, 
Lifting  the  lowest  up. 

Press  on  !     And  we  who  may  not  share 

The  toil  or  glory  of  your  fight, 
May  ask  at  least,  in  earnest  prayer, 

God's  blessing  on  the  right  ! 

If  thus  she  sings,  and  if  she  mingles  her  banners  with 
those  of  the   struggling   army  anxious   to   conquer  the 


THE    CHURCH    AND    SOCIETY  243 

savagery  of  our  civilization,  she  will  be  loved.  No 
longer  will  she  be  viewed  with  suspicion  and  hate,  no 
longer  will  she  be  scorned  by  the  toiling  millions — she 
will  be  loved.  And,  coming  to  love  her,  the  people, 
through  her  love  for  them,  will  come  to  love  one  an- 
other, and  then  that  which  Mrs.  Besant  sought  will  be 
found,  the  principle,  and  the  only  principle,  through 
which  "the  nobler  social  order"  can  be  constructed 
and  through  which  it  may  hope  to  be  perpetuated  as 
long  as  time  endures. 


VI 
THE    BIBLE   AND    CRITICISM 


Perhaps  the  Christian  volume  is  the  theme, 

How  guiltless  blood  for  guilty  man  was  shed  ; 
How  He  who  bore  in  heaven  the  second  name, 

Had  not,  on  earth,  whereon  to  lay  his  head ; 

How  his  first  followers  and  servants  sped  ; 
The  precepts  sage  they  wrote  to  many  a  land ; 

How  he  who,  lone  in  Patmos  banished, 
Saw,  in  the  sun,  a  mighty  angel  stand  ; 
And  heard  great  Bab'lon's  doom  pronounced  by 
heaven's  command. 


-Robert  Burns. 


VI 


THE  BEARING  OF  RECENT  RESEARCH  ON  THE  INSPIRATION 
OF  HOLY  WRIT 

Somewhat  strange  to  modern  thought  the  fervid 
declaration  of  a  poet  whose  works  are  now  almost  for- 
gotten : 

Sad  error  this,  to  take 
The  light  of  nature  rather  than  the  light 
Of  revelation  for  a  guide.      As  well 
Prefer  the  borrowed  light  of  earth's  pale  moon 
To  the  effulgence  of  the  noonday' s  sun. 

For  a  time  during  the  nineteenth  century  it  seemed 
as  though  naturalism  was  destined  to  supersede  other 
religions ;  and  the  impression  still  widely,  though  more 
vaguely,  prevails  that  the  material  universe  is  luminous 
with  heavenly  truth  and  is  all-sufficient  to  make  known 
the  character  of  God  and  the  import  of  man.  To  write, 
therefore,  in  disparaging  terms  of  "  the  light  of  nature  " 
is  not  even  now  quite  comprehensible  to  a  goodly  num- 
ber of  intelligent  people,  and  yet  a  notable  reaction  has 
set  in  favorable  to  the  sentiments  expressed  by  the. 
bard.  More  than  a  suspicion  has  been  aroused  that 
from  the  physical,  however  sublime  or  beautiful,  there 
can  be  derived  no  satisfactory  answer  to  the  deep  ques- 
tions that  perplex  the  soul.  If,  indeed,  it  be  a  '^  word 
of  God,"  as  one  sweet  singer  intimates,  it  is  a  cabalistic 
word,  dark  and  confusing,  a  gigantic  hieroglyphic,  un- 
readable without  a  Rosetta  stone,  and,  if  such  a  Rosetta 

247 


248      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Stone  be  enwrapped  in  the  consciousness  of  man,  there 
is  need  of  a  Higher  Teacher  to  make  legible  its  charac- 
ters. 

We  are  at  last  beginning  to  learn  that  the  mind  only 
receives  from  nature  what  it  originally  imparts  to  na- 
ture, as  the  musician  only  draws  from  his  instrument 
the  melody  his  touch  conveys.  Eloquent  and  impress- 
ive, and  illustrative  also  of  our  meaning,  these  sentences 
from  Vaughan's  "  Mystics  "  : 

Go  into  the  woods  and  valleys  when  your  heart  is  rather 
harassed  than  bruised  and  when  you  suffer  from  vexation  more 
than  grief.  Then  the  trees  all  hold  out  their  arms  to  relieve  you 
of  the  burden  of  your  heavy  thoughts,  and  the  streams  under  the 
trees  glance  at  you  as  they  go  by  and  will  carry  away  your  trouble 
along  with  the  fallen  leaves,  and  the  sweet-breathing  air  will  draw 
it  off  together  with  the  silver  multitude  of  the  dew.  But  let  it  be 
with  anguish  or  remorse  in  your  heart  that  you  go  forth  into  na- 
ture and,  instead  of  your  speaking  her  language,  you  make  her 
speak  yours.  Your  distress  is  then  infused  through  all  things 
and  clothes  all  things,  and  nature  only  echoes  and  seems  to  au- 
thenticate your  hopelessness.  Then  you  find  the  device  of  your 
sorrow  on  the  argent  shield  of  the  moon  and  see  all  tlie  trees  of  the 
field  weeping  and  wringing  their  hands  with  you.  while  the  hills 
seated  at  your  side  in  sackcloth  look  down  upon  you  prostrate  and 
reprove  you  like  Job's  comforters. 

It  is  likewise  true,  if  a  distressed  mind  carries  its 
darkness  to  Nature  for  light,  as  the  despairing  conscience 
does  its  bitterness,  she  only  seems  to  authenticate  its 
helpless  ignorance.  It  is  not  denied  that,  rightly  inter- 
preted, the  universe  does  illustrate  and  ratify  the  pro- 
foundest  spiritual  truths,  and  that  Swedenborg  is  not 
far  wrong  in  regarding  the  physical  as  symbolical  of 
the  spiritual ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  originates 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  249 

these  truths  or  explains  its  own  symbolism.  Though  an 
affirmative  answer   may  be  given  to  Milton's  question- 

What  if  earth 
Be  but  the  shadow  of  heaven  and  things  therein 
Each  to  other  more  like  than  on  earth  is  thought  ? 

and  though  we  are  assured  that  "  the  invisible  things  of 
God  from  the  creation  of  the  world  are  clearly  seen, 
being  understood  by  the  things  that  are  made,"  it  still 
remains  that  the  seeing  depends  upon  the  eyes,  and  the 
eyes  upon  a  light,  born  not  of  sun  or  stars  but  emanat- 
ing directly  from  God  himself. 

Hence  it  was  that  Fichte,  under  the  influence  of  such 
a  philosophy  as  this,  wrote  : 

Among  all  nations,  so  far  as  they  have  raised  themselves  from 
the  perfectly  savage  state  to  that  of  a  community,  there  are  to  be 
found  .  .  .  traditions  of  supernatural  inspirations  and  influences 
of  the  deity  upon  mortals  ;  in  a  word,  although  presented  here 
more  widely,  there  under  an  aspect  more  refined,  still,  univer- 
sally, the  notion  of  revelation  is  met  by  the  observer. 

Therefore  he  argues  that  "the  phenomenon  is  so  im- 
portant that  philosophy  ought  to  investigate  its  origin, 
and  not,  without  hearing,  class  it  among  the  inventions 
of  deceivers  or  banish  it  to  the  land  of  dreams."  ^  And 
Doctor  Fairbairn,  representing  more  recent  scholarship, 
says  : 

Speech  is  natural  to  spirit,  and,  if  God  is  by  nature  spirit,  it 
will  be  to  him  a  matter  of  nature  to  reveal  himself.  .  .  If,  then, 
God  ever  speaks  to  the  conscience  of  any  man,  he  speaks  at  the 
same  moment  to  all  men,  and  his  words  do  not,  by  being  written. 


1  See  William  Lee's  "Inspiration  of  Scriptures." 


250      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

lose  their  aboriginal  quality.  .  .  The  idea  of  a  written  revelation 
may  be  said  to  be  logically  involved  in  the  notion  of  a  living 
God.i 

This  confident  conclusion  is,  however,  challenged  by 
a  very  respectable  school  of  advanced  thinkers.  While 
conceding  that  God  reveals  himself,  they  repudiate  as 
incredible  that  he  should  have  made  known  particular 
religious  doctrines,  and  have  provided  for  their  perma- 
nent preservation  by  directing  his  servants,  duly  quali- 
fied by  himself,  to  reduce  the  same  to  writing,  with  the 
record  of  such  events  connected  with  their  origin  as 
might  tend  to  illustrate  their  meaning.  According  to 
their  conception  of  God's  dealings  with  mankind,  it  is 
rational  to  expect  that  he  will  communicate  with  his 
creatures,  but  not  with  sufficient  explicitness  and  direct- 
ness for  his  messages  to  be  definitely  formulated,  and 
certainly  not  accompanied  with  an  injunction  to  shape 
them  into  a  volume.  They  object  not  so  much  to  the 
possibility  of  a  revelation  as  they  do  to  a  fixed,  final, 
and  authorized  report  of  a  revelation.  That  God  may 
speak  they  allow,  but  that  he  may  write  or  control  the 
powers  of  men  to  pen  what  he  would  have  remembered, 
they  cannot  for  a  moment  tolerate.  In  their  opinion  it 
is  reasonable  that  he  should  reflect  himself  in  human 
souls  as  an  image  is  reflected  in  a  mirror,  but  not  rea- 
sonable that  he  should  photograph  the  image  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  would  remain  to  instruct  successive 
generations. 

There  are  some  positions  that  need  only  to  be  stated 
for  their  untcnableness  to  be  felt,  and  the  one  to  which 
I  have  referred  is  a  case  in  point.     If  it  accords  with 

1  "Christ  in  Modern  Theology,"  p.  496. 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  25  I 

the  fitness  of  things  for  the  Infinite  Being  to  manifest 
himself,  it  cannot  be  otherwise  than  fitting  that  he 
should  adopt  such  means  as  would  secure  to  the  world 
the  benefits  of  such  manifestation.  Even  though  in 
coming  ages  he  may  amplify  his  original  communica- 
tions, and  even  though  he  may,  as  time  rolls  on,  assist 
the  human  mind  in  evolving  from  them  ever-deepening 
meanings,  there  are  good  reasons  why  these  original 
communications  should  be  fixed  and  preserved — if  for 
no  other  purpose  that,  at  least,  they  might  serve  as  the 
universal  grammar  of  theology.  The  agitations  and 
speculations  of  the  last  hundred  years  have  not  suc- 
ceeded in  refuting  or  in  seriously  discrediting  this  rea- 
soning, and  to  the  overwhelming  mass  of  Christians  it 
is  sound  and  unanswerable.  They  not  only  subscribe 
to  it,  but  they  maintain  that  their  own  sacred  books 
present  the  loftiest  and  the  most  demonstrable,  if  not 
the  exclusive,  instance  of  its  soundness. 

Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  the  books  themselves  cre- 
ate a  presumption  favorable  to  their  divine  origin  and 
heavenly  mission.  The  skeptical  Heine  regarded  them 
as  a  breath  laden  with  the  sweets  of  paradise,  and,  after 
prolonged  examination  of  the  Bible,  exclaimed  : 

What  a  book  !  Vast  and  wide  as  the  world,  rooted  in  the 
abysses  of  creation,  and  towering  up  beyond  the  blue  secrets  of 
heaven.  Sunrise  and  sunset,  promise  and  fulfillment,  life  and 
death,  the  whole  drama  of  humanity,  are  all  in  this  book.  .  .  Its 
light  is  like  the  body  of  the  heavens  in  its  clearness,  its  vastness 
is  like  the  bosom  of  the  sea,  its  variety  like  the  scenes  of  nature. 

This  singularly  beautiful  testimony  reminds  me  of 
what  John  Ruskin  has  written  regarding  the  emotions 
excited  by  the  Alps  on  those  whose  minds  are  open  and 


252      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

susceptible  to  impressions.  He  says  that  their  ''wall  of 
irranite  in  the  heavens  "  has  been  the  same  to  succeed- 
ing  generations  of  sight-seers,  and  then,  alluding  to  the 
dead,  he  adds  : 

They  have  ceased  to  look  upon  it  ;  you  will  soon  cease  to  look 
also,  and  the  granite  wall  will  be  for  others.  Then,  mingled  with 
these  more  solemn  imaginations,  come  to  the  understanding  of 
the  gifts  and  glories  of  the  Alp — the  fancying  forth  of  all  the 
fountains  that  well  from  its  rocky  walls,  the  strong  rivers  that  are 
born  out  of  its  ice,  and  all  the  pleasant  valleys  that  wind  be- 
tween its  cliffs,  and  all  the  chalets  that  gleam  among  its  clouds, 
and  happy  farmsteads  couched  upon  its  pastures. 

To  many  devout  minds  this  is  an  image  of  the  Chris- 
tian revelation.  To  them  the  Holy  Bible  is  as  the 
Alps,  clothed  with  purity  as  with  snow  and  surrounded 
by  tender  mysteries  as  summer  hills  with  fleecy  clouds ; 
while  not  a  few  see  only  the  granite  wall,  the  stern, 
firm,  inexorable  things  that  enter  into  the  substance  of 
the  volume ;  they  perceive  the  streams  of  healing  influ- 
ence that  have  gone  forth  from  its  solemn  retreats  and 
the  fertility  and  beauty  which  have  graced  and  fresh- 
ened society  wherever  its  cooling  and  vitalizing  air  has 
circulated  among  the  habitations  of  men.  That  it  has 
proven  a  practical  blessing  to  mankind  is  so  evident 
that  the  question  of  its  value  to  the  world  is  hardly 
within  the  range  of  practical  discussion.  Says  Cole- 
ridge : 

For  more  than  a  thousand  years  the  Bible,  collectively  taken, 
has  gone  hand  in  hand  with  civilization,  science,  law — in  short, 
with  the  moral  and  intellectual  cultivation  of  the  species,  always 
supporting  and  often  leading  the  way.  Its  very  presence  as  a 
believed  book  has  rendered  the  nation  emphatically  a  chosen 
race,  and  this  too  in  exact  proportion  as  it  is  more  or  less  gen- 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  253 

erally  known  and  studied.  Of  those  nations  which  in  the  highest 
degree  enjoy  its  influences,  it  is  not  too  much  to  affirm  that  the 
differences,  pubhc  and  private,  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual, 
are  only  less  than  what  might  be  expected  from  a  diversity  of 
species.  God  and  holy  men  and  the  best  and  wisest  of  mankind, 
the  kingly  spirits  of  history,  enthroned  in  the  hearts  of  mighty 
nations,  have  borne  witness  to  its  influences,  have  declared  it  to 
be  beyond  compare  the  most  perfect  instrument,  the  only  ade- 
quate organ  of  humanity. 

The  impression  has  been  sedulously  created  in  some 
quarters  that  recent  scholarly  investigations  have  meas- 
urably dimmed  these  bright  credentials  and  have  dam- 
aged the  once  commanding  authority  of  the  Scriptures. 
Every  intelligent  reader,  even  of  popular  literature, 
knows  very  well  the  grounds  on  which  these  representa- 
tions rest.  This  century  has  been  marked  by  a  pro- 
longed conflict  between  the  ardent  friends  of  revelation 
and  the  revolutionary  movements  of  modern  investiga- 
tion. At  first,  the  appearance  of  geology  was  treated  as 
a  covert  attack  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  its  views  of 
creation  were  rejected  with  scorn  as  contradicting  the 
Mosaic  account.  No  one  seemed  to  stop  and  inquire 
whether  the  difficulty  and  discrepancy  might  not  lie 
between  traditional  interpretations  and  science  and  not 
at  all  between  science  and  the  Bible.  But  this  alarm 
had  scarcely  subsided  when  a  fresh  outbreak  was  occa- 
sioned by  Darwin's  epoch-making  volume  on  evolution. 
This  seemed  necessarily  to  antagonize  the  radical  con- 
ceptions of  sin  and  redemption,  of  incarnation  and  re- 
generation, which  enter  so  largely  into  the  warp  and 
woof  of  Bible  teaching. 

Then,  as  though  this  were  not  sufficient  to  shake  the 
faith   of    multitudes,   there   loomed    up   ominously    the 


254      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

seemingly  destructive  agency  of  textual  or  lower  criti- 
cism and  historical  or  higher  criticism.  These  twin 
invaders  of  the  repose  precious  and  sacred  to  conserva- 
tive orthodoxy  were  not  absolute  novelties  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.  They  had  frequently  been  heard  of 
before,  and  always  with  something  akin  to  dismay.  At 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  they  were  represented  by 
Lorenzo  Valla  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Alps  and  by 
Erasmus  and  Carlstadt  on  the  northern.  Two  of  these 
eminent  men  strove  to  determine  the  true  text  of  the 
New  Testament,  while  the  third  shocked  many  of  his 
contemporaries  by  declaring,  as  the  result  of  his  inqui- 
ries, that  the  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  was  unknown. 
Ludovicus  Cappellus,  in  1650,  revived  and  elaborated 
their  decisions,  and,  though  he  was  assailed  for  his 
temerity  in  exposing  the  defects  of  the  accepted  text, 
scholars  like  Grotius,  Usher,  Voss,  and  Bochart  accepted 
his  findings.  In  1670  Spinoza  discussed  anew  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Pentateuch,  and  was  constrained  to  pronounce 
against  traditional  views.  In  this  he  was  sustained  by 
Le  Clerc,  of  Amsterdam,  to  whom  is  attributed  the  now 
familiar  reply,  made  in  answer  to  those  who  remind  the 
critics  that  Christ  always  spoke  of  Moses  as  the  author 
of  the  five  books  :  "  Our  Lord  and  his  apostles  did  not 
come  into  the  world  to  teach  criticism  to  the  Jews,  and 
hence  spoke  according  to  the  common  opinion."  The 
year  1751  brought  another  advanced  thinker  into  the 
arena  of  debate,  Wetstein,  of  Basel,  who  laid  down  the 
principle  that  the  New  Testament  should  be  studied  as 
any  other  book,  and  he  was  ably  seconded  by  Bengel, 
if  it  be  correct  to  refer  to  this  foremost  scholar  of  the 
Lutheran  communion  as  secondary  to  any  one.     Astruc 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  255 

carried  these  interesting  inquiries  yet  further,  and,  in 
1753,  pubhshed  certain  conjectures  on  the  "fragments  " 
which  were  joined  together  to  make  up  Genesis ;  then 
Eichhorn  took  up  several  aspects  of  critical  investiga- 
tion in  a  way  at  once  original  and  disquieting ;  and,  nearer 
to  our  own  time  and  coming  down  to  the  present  hour, 
there  have  appeared  in  quick  succession  and  in  brilliant 
groups,  scholars  like  De  Wette,  Ewald,  Vatke,  Reuss, 
Graf,  Hupfeld,  Delitzsch,  Kuenen,  Wellhausen,  Robert- 
son Smith,  Sanday,  Driver,  Harper,  Briggs,  and  others, 
who,  while  not  agreeing  entirely  among  themselves, 
maintain  that  the  traditional  conceptions  concerning 
the  text  and  the  composition  of  the  Bible  are  no  longer 
tenable.  Their  conclusions  have  not  commanded  the 
assent  of  the  church  universal,  and  have  frequently 
been  met  either  by  derision  or  by  execration.  When 
they  were  given  prominence  in  the  famous  ''  Essays  and 
Reviews,"  Bishop  Wilberforce  was  moved  to  indignation 
against  them  ;  Doctor  Pusey,  the  Tractarian  leader, 
denounced  them  ;  and  religious  parties  in  England  were 
excited  to  a  fever  point  by  their  apparent  destructive 
tendency.  The  pope  was  constrained  in  ex-catJiedra 
fashion  to  protest  (1864),  and,  in  many  a  village  church 
and  in  many  a  simple  home,  humble  but  fervent  Protes- 
tants were  found  agreeing  with  his  holiness  against  the 
intellectual  dictum  of  professors  and  reformed  preachers. 
Something  very  like  despair  was  experienced  by  mul- 
titudes of  godly  people,  to  whom  all  investigations  into 
the  character  of  Holy  Writ  were  almost  as  blasphemous 
as  inquiries  into  the  nature  and  doings  of  the  Almighty. 
When  the  hysterical  horror  was  at  its  height,  eminent 
men  in  defiant  tones  took   up  the  gauntlet  against  the 


256      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

entire  critical  school  and  replied  in  most  extravagant 
fashion.  Doctor  Baylee,  principal  of  St.  Aidan's  Col- 
lege, declared  that,  "  in  the  Scripture,  every  scientific 
statement  is  infallibly  accurate ;  all  its  histories  and 
narrations  of  every  kind  are  without  any  inaccuracy. 
Its  words  and  phrases  have  a  grammatical  and  philo- 
logical accuracy  such  as  is  possessed  by  no  human  com- 
position." Dean  Burgon,  in  1861,  preached  at  Oxford 
a  sermon  in  which  occurs  this  statement : 

No,  sirs,  the  Bible  is  the  very  utterance  of  the  Eternal,  as 
much  God's  own  word  as  if  high  heaven  were  open  and  we 
heard  God  speaking  to  us  with  human  voice.  Every  book  is 
inspired  alike  and  is  inspired  entirely.  Inspiration  is  not  a  dif- 
ference of  degree,  but  of  kind.  The  Bible  is  filled  to  overflowing 
with  the  Holy  Spirit  of  G"od  ;  the  books  of  it,  and  the  words  of 
it,  and  the  very  letters  of  it.^ 

These  preachers  were  only  typical  of  a  class  who,  un- 
moved by  evidence  and  seemingly  indifferent  to  the 
testimony  of  sound  learning,  spoke  stridently,  sarcasti- 
cally, and  scathingly  against  a  school  of  thought  whose 
investigations  they  had  not  followed,  and  whose  premises 
many  of  them  did  not  understand. 

It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  some  of  the  critics,  on 
their  side,  went  too  far,  were  too  hasty  at  times  in  de- 
nying the  supernatural,  occasionally  rested  the  most 
pretentious  positions  on  the  flimsiest  of  evidence,  and 
brought  their  own  science  into  disrepute  by  sometimes 
asserting  more  than  they  could  prove,  and  by  a  frequent 
changing  of  their  ground  and  retracing  of  their  steps. 
But  notwithstanding  these  weaknesses  and  deficiencies, 
it  were  absurd  to  claim  that  their  labors  have  not  been 


'  See  White's  "  Warfare  of  Science  with  Theology,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  369. 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  25/ 

of  the  highest  value  to  the  cause  of  truth,  or  that,  cor- 
rectly understood,  they  have  seriously  militated  against 
the  supremacy  of  the  Scriptures,  or  that  they  have  jus- 
tified the  widespread  and  acute  alarm  which  in  several 
quarters  has  been  excited. 

Nor  should  the  fact  be  overlooked  that  not  a  few 
thoughtful  souls  hail  with  delight  what  others  regard 
with  dread,  and  believe  that  judicious  criticism,  whether 
termed ''higher "  or  ''literary,"  must,  in  the  long  run, 
place  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  on  a  surer  foun- 
dation and  restore  them  to  such  confidence  and  venera- 
tion as  may  have  been  lost.  They  feel  that  the  Bible 
has  measurably  lost  its  hold  on  many  because  some  of 
its  friends  have  ascribed  to  it  perfections  which  do  not 
bear  the  test  of  examination.  It  was  Bishop  Hooker 
who  laid  down  the  rule  that,  "as  incredible  praises 
given  to  men  do  often  abate  and  impair  the  credit  of 
the  deserved  commendation,  so  we  must  also  take  great 
heed  lest  by  attributing  to  Scriptures  more  than  they 
can  have,  the  incredibilty  of  that  do  cause  even  those 
things  which  they  have  to  be  less  reverently  esteemed." 
The  same  judgment  is  expressed  by  Richard  Baxter, 
when  he  says:  "It  is  the  devil's  last  method  to  undo 
by  over-doing,  and  so  to  destroy  the  authority  of  the 
Apostles  by  over-magnifying."  If  ever  a  point  were 
well  taken,  this  is  in  connection  with  the  divine  word. 
Max  Miiller  refers  to  some  who  theorize  about  its  ori- 
gin in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  impression  that  the 
book  was  ready-made  in  heaven  and  handed  down  as  we 
have  it  to  the  world.  Equally  extravagant  is  Turretin's 
assertion  that  the  very  vowel-points  and  accents  of  the 
Hebrew  are  inspired,  or  the  declaration  of  Chemnitz 


258      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

that  the  writers  of  the  sacred  volume  were  only  "aman- 
uenses of  God,  hands  of  Christ,  scribes  and  notaries  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  living  pens."  These  immoderate  rep- 
resentations are  intended  to  exalt  the  Bible  ;  but  it  is 
not  clear  that  they  succeed  in  their  object.  They  go 
too  far.  In  their  zeal  to  crown  the  book  with  glory 
and  honor,  they  ascribe  to  it  perfections  which  are  not 
reconcilable  with  some  of  its  contents. 

"There  are  things  in  the  Old  Testament,"  writes  Henry  Drum- 
mond  in  the  "Expositor,"  '  "cast  in  the  teeth  of  the  apologist 
by  skeptics,  to  which  he  has  simply  no  answer.  These  are  the 
things,  the  miserable  things,  the  masses  have  laid  hold  of.  They 
are  the  stock-in-trade  of  the  free-thought  platform  and  the  secu- 
larist pamphleteer.  A  new  exegesis,  a  reconsideration  of  the 
historic  setting,  and  a  clearer  view  of  the  moral  purposes  of  God, 
would  change  from  barriers  into  bulwarks  of  faith." 

The  critics  claim  that  these  things  cannot  be  ex- 
plained away  on  the  hypothesis  of  Chemnitz  and  his 
school  ;  and  that,  so  long  as  they  remain  and  are  not 
dealt  with  rationally,  the  Bible  must  suffer  loss.  They 
believe  that  they  are  able  to  dispose  of  these  and  other 
difficulties  in  a  fair  and  straightforward  manner,  and  in 
various  ways  to  clear  up  the  doctrine  of  inspiration 
from  the  misconceptions  and  imputations  which  have 
♦rendered  it  almost  incredible  to  thinking  men  ;  and  it 
is  because  there  is  need  of  such  work  and  because  there 
are  reasons  for  assuming  that  they  are  striving  to  do  it, 
that  their  investigations  are  being  welcomed  by  an  ever- 
widening  circle  of  intelligent  people. 

How  far  they  have  succeeded,  it  is  of  interest  to  de- 
termine ;  for  the  results  of  their  labors  will  exercise  a 


February,  1885. 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  259 

tremendous  influence  on  the  religious  life  of  the  future. 
Well,  then,  may  we  devote  some  degree  of  attention  to 
the  bearing  of  recent  research  on  the  inspiration  of 
Holy  Writ. 

This  research  has,  in  my  judgment,  settled  beyond 
reasonable  doubt  that  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible  re- 
sides in  the  essential  nature  of  the  book  and  not  neces- 
sarily in  the  letter.  That  Christian  people  should  have 
been  so  long  in  arriving  at  this  conclusion,  and  that 
there  are  so  many  reluctant  to  accept  it  now,  is  one  of 
the  most  surprising  facts  in  the  history  of  religion. 
Yet  it  is  so,  and  doubtless  it  is  to  be  accounted  for  by 
the  singular  fascination  which  ancient  and  long-ac- 
cepted opinions  have  for  the  devout.  From  the  time 
when  the  scribes  became  an  influential  caste  in  Israel 
down  to  our  own  day,  with  here  and  there  remarkable 
and  lucid  intervals  and  with  unmistakable  signs  of  a 
clearer  judgment  to  come,  the  conviction  has  prevailed 
that  every  word  in  the  Bible  was  fully  inspired.  The 
later  Jews  counted  every  verse  and  letter  in  the  sacred 
books,  attached  importance  to  every  mark  under  and 
above  the  line,  and  believed  that  a  mystery  lurked  in 
every  jot  and  tittle.  Aquila  declared  that  a  meaning 
was  to  be  found  in  every  monosyllable,  even  in  every 
superfluous  ''and"  or  "also"  or  sign  of  case,  and  in  the 
flourish  of  every  letter.  The  extreme  form  of  this  doc- 
trine may  be  studied  in  Philo,  where  some  of  its  ab- 
surdities may  be  perceived  as  well.  To  him,  the  writers 
of  the  Bible  are  only  as  instruments  of  music  moved 
invisibly  by  God's  power,  and  as  passive  as  such  instru- 
ments. Notwithstanding  his  extreme  views,  his  belief 
in  verbal  dictation,  and,   as  Farrar  puts  it,  in  a  kind  of 


26o      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

divine  ventriloquism,  he  takes  grave  liberties  with  the 
text.  Several  books  he  passes  without  mention ;  the 
historical  portions  he  considers  as  mystical  and  not  as 
narratives,  narratives  being,  in  his  judgment,  unworthy 
of  the  Spirit ;  and  worse  still,  he  blends  with  the  word 
scraps  of  heathen  philosophy  and  poetry,  dealing  with 
it  as  he  pleases  and  degrading  what  he  pretends  to  ex- 
alt. The  theory  of  Josephus  coincides  exactly  with 
that  of  Philo.  They  both  insist  on  an  inspiration  that 
practically  obliterates  the  faculties  of  the  mediums  em- 
ployed, and  then,  to  escape  the  difificulties  of  their  posi- 
tion, apply  a  system  of  allegorizing  and  spiritualizing, 
which  not  only  supersedes  the  literal  sense  but  actually 
renders  it  superfluous.  For  why  should  any  revelation 
be  given  at  all,  if  a  meaning  is  to  be  arbitrarily  given  it 
by  the  expositor,  and  if  every  expositor  is  free  to  draw 
from  his  own  consciousness  or  from  his  imagination 
what  it  ought  to  teach  ?  And  if  such  a  course  is  de- 
manded by  the  exigencies  of  Philo's  doctrine,  then, 
whether  held  by  Jew  or  Gentile,  it  is  self -judged  and 
condemned  as  false. 

The  primitive  Christians  accepted  from  the  Hebrews 
the  traditional  idea  of  inspiration.  While  at  first  no 
specific  theory  was  advocated,  yet  patristic  learning  re- 
veals the  influence  of  Jewish  thought  on  the  Fathers. 
Thus,  Clemens  Romanus  calls  the  holy  Scriptures 
"the  true  words  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  ;  and  Gregory  the 
Great  says :  "  It  is  needless  to  ask  who  wrote  the  book 
of  Job,  since  we  may  faithfully  believe  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  its  author."  Dissatisfaction  with  such  ex- 
cessive liberalism  revealed  itself  during  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury in    the  teachings  of    Abelard.     That    remarkable 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  26l 

man  assailed  the  authority  of  tradition,  and  went  so  far 
as  to  challenge  the  infallibility  of  the  sacred  writers. 
His  protest,  however,  speedily  died  away,  lost  in  the 
clamor  of  those  who  were  not  sufficiently  familiar  with 
the  Scriptures  to  really  appreciate  his  discriminating 
distinctions.  With  the  sixteenth  century  and  with  the 
enlightened  labors  of  Reuchlin  and  Erasmus,  the  be- 
ginning of  serious  dissent  from  the  hard  theory  of  the 
Jewish  school  commenced ;  but  various  vicissitudes 
were  to  be  experienced  before  it  should  reach  its  pres- 
ent proportions.  They  and  Martin  Luther  subjected  the 
books  of  the  Bible  to  a  pretty  thorough  sifting.  They 
did  not  regard  them  as  a  collection  of  supernatural  sen- 
tences, verbally  dictated.  Luther,  in  particular,  taught 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  illumined  the  mind  of  prophets 
and  apostles  so  that  they  had  a  perfect  knowledge  of 
salvation,  and  that  the  recording  of  divine  communica- 
tions was  a  natural  and  not  a  miraculous  act. 

But  even  these  leaders  were  not  equal  to  the  task  of 
bringing  the  church  over  to  their  way  of  thinking.  The 
second  period  of  the  Reformation  witnessed  a  reaction. 
Romanism  laid  stress  on  its  own  infallibility,  and  the 
Reformers  imagined  that  it  would  help  their  cause  to 
oppose  an  infallible  book  to  an  infallible  church  ;  but, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  church,  this  high  attribute,  when 
applied  to  the  Bible,  has  not  unified  opinion  and  inter- 
pretation, and,  however  firmly  held,  has  not  produced 
the  restful  confidence  contemplated.  Intent  on  a  very 
laudable  purpose,  never  to  be  accomplished  by  their 
methods,  the  Reformers  of  the  second  generation  be- 
gan to  substitute  dogmatism  for  reason  and  common 
sense,  and    their    successors  for  many    years  followed 


262      CHRISTIAMTV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

blindly  their  leadership.  It  was  given  out  that  the 
Bible  was  not  the  record  of  revelation  but  the  revela- 
tion itself ;  and  that,  as  such,  it  was  a  verbally  dictated 
volume,  whose  human  authors  were  deprived  of  their 
individuality  during  its  preparation.  Criticism  of  the 
text  was  treated  as  blasphemy.  It  was  said  that  Hel- 
lenistic Greek  was  simply  holy  Greek,  and  that  the 
Spirit  for  our  pleasure  had  adopted  the  style  of  the  dif- 
ferent human  pens  he  employed.  These  views  pre- 
vailed to  some  extent  among  the  Puritans  of  England, 
from  whom  we  in  America  have  derived  what  is  gener- 
ally regarded  by  members  of  our  churches  as  the  only 
orthodox  doctrine  of  inspiration. 

Yet,  though  thousands  may  be  willfully  determined 
to  ignore  the  fact,  there  has  been  for  many  years  a 
steady  movement  away  from  the  rigid  iron-bound  theory 
of  the  post-Reformers.  This  second  reaction,  which 
seems  to  be  becoming  permanent,  could  hardly  be 
avoided.  From  the  hour  when  Robert  Stevens  reported 
two  thousand  three  hundred  and  eighty-four  variations 
in  the  oldest  manuscripts,  even  though  it  was  acknowl- 
edged that  no  article  of  faith  was  thereby  obscured, 
the  doom  of  verbal  inspiration  was  inevitable.  Criti- 
cism, the  improved  knowledge  of  the  text,  the  growth 
of  science,  and  even  the  assaults  of  rationalism,  have 
rendered  this  result  only  the  more  certain.  Heroic 
struggles  have  been  made  to  arrest  this  tendency,  but 
in  vain  ;  and  still  noble  defenders  of  the  faith,  who  feel 
that  the  stability  of  Christianity  is  dependent  on  the 
maintenance  of  what  the  Protestant  scholastics  set  forth, 
plead  earnestly  for  the  inherited  faith  and  count  those 
who  question  it  as  heretics.     Their  endeavors  are  futile. 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  263 

Assertion,  special  pleading,  and  revilings  are  impotent 
to  stay  the  tide  of  dissent  from  a  hypothesis  which 
has  been  tried  and  found  to  be  wanting ;  but  from  the 
antiquity  of  the  tree,  and  from  the  depths  to  which  its 
roots  have  penetrated,  and  from  their  close  interblend- 
ing  with  the  religious  thought  of  twenty  centuries,  we 
can  readily  understand  the  difficulty  experienced  by 
modern  research  in  supplanting  it  with  one  of  diviner 
growth.  Nevertheless,  however  hard,  it  is  being  done. 
What  the  new  growth  is  which  is  being  substituted 
for  the  old  can  easily  be  ascertained  by  following  the 
literature  of  the  subject ;  and  if  I  quote  from  the  writ- 
ings of  those  who  were  not  and  are  not  technically 
higher  critics,  but  who  were  governed  by  the  critical 
spirit,  it  is  because  I  would  have  it  clearly  seen  that  the 
conclusions  reached  are  not  due  to  the  excessive  ration- 
alism which  is  associated  in  many  minds  with  higher 
criticism.  I  begin  with  Bengel,  already  referred  to, 
whose  candor,  thoughtful  liberality,  and  sweet  reason- 
ableness are  evinced  in  what  he  says  about  troubled  in- 
quiries : 

It  is  easy  for  all  who  are  content  to  live  on  like  the  rest  of  the 
world  to  be  orthodox.  They  believe  what  was  believed  before 
them,  and  never  trouble  themselves  with  testing  it.  But  when  a 
soul  is  anxious  about  truth,  then  things  are  not  quite  so  easy. 
How  wrong  it  is  then  to  rush  in  upon  just  such  sensitive  souls,  to 
cross-question,  to  gag,  and  stun  them,  when  we  ought,  on  the 
contrary,  to  give  them  liberty  of  speech  that  they  may  gain  con- 
fidence and  suffer  themselves  to  be  led  aright. 

This  liberty  he  himself  exercised  in  judging  the  true 
character  of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  They  were  to  him 
"  an  incomparable  narrative  of  the  divine  government  of 


264      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  human  race  throughout  all  ages  of  the  world,  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end  of  all  things."  The  idea  of  their 
mechanical  verbal  inspiration  he  quietly  rejected,  and 
fully  recognized  the  manifold  differences  in  style  and 
idiosyncrasies  of  the  composers.  His  opinions  were 
not  altogether  unlike  those  of  Luther,  and  he  agreed  with 
the  Reformer  in  the  expressed  conviction  quoted  by 
Kostlin  :  "  The  Holy  Ghost  is  the  all-simplest  writer 
that  is  in  heaven  or  earth;  therefore  his  words  can 
have  no  more  than  one  simplest  sense,  which  we  call 
the  scriptural  or  literal  meaning." 

Herder,  who  died  in  1803,  and  who  expired  penning 
a  hymn  to  the  Deity,  followed  closely  on  the  line 
marked  out  by  Bengel,  and  said  ''  that  the  Bible  con- 
tained a  progressive  revelation,"  and  is  the  treasure- 
house  of  **  vivid  poetry,  practical  history,  and  an  eternal 
philosophy."      He  further  wrote  in  his  "Letters": 

The  Bible  must  be  read  in  a  human  manner,  for  it  is  a  book 
written  by  men  for  men.  The  best  reading  of  this  divine  book  is 
human.  The  more  humanly  we  read  the  word  of  God,  the 
nearer  we  come  to  the  design  of  its  author,  who  created  man  in 
his  image,  and  acts  humanly  in  all  the  deeds  and  mercies 
wherein  he  manifests  himself  as  our  God. 

In  a  more  explicit  and  formal  way.  Bishop  Home, 
during  the  last  century,  supported  this  conception  and 
defined  inspiration  as  ''  the  imparting  of  such  a  de- 
gree of  divine  assistance,  influence,  or  guidance  as 
should  enable  the  authors  to  communicate  religious 
knowledge  to  others  without  error."      He  further  says  : 

When  it  is  said  the  Scriptures  were  divinely  inspired,  we  are 
not   to   understand   that   God  suggested  every  word,   or  dictated 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  265 

every  expression.  .  .  Nor  is  it  to  be  supposed  that  they  (the 
authors)  were  inspired  in  every  fact  which  they  related,  or  in 
every  precept  which  they  delivered.  They  were  left  to  the  com- 
mon use  of  their  faculties,  and  did  not  stand  in  need  on  every 
occasion  of  supernatural  communication,  which  was  afforded  only 
when  necessary.  Nor  does  it  follow  that  they  derived  from 
revelation  the  knowledge  of  those  things  which  might  be  collected 
from  the  common  sources  of  human  intelligence.  Some  of  their 
books  were  compiled  from  sacred  annals,  written  by  prophets  and 
seers,  from  public  records  and  documents  of  uninspired  men. 
Whatever  may  be  true  respecting  the  historical  portions,  we  may 
be  fully  convinced  that  the  prophetical  parts  come  from  God. 

Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge  went  beyond  the  bishop  in 
the  boldness  of  his  utterances  on  this  theme.  He  was 
not  a  professed  theologian,  and  was  not  so  conservative 
in  the  expression  of  his  views  as  ordained  ecclesiastics 
usually  are  and  ought  to  be.  In  his  ''Aids  to  Reflec- 
tion," and  in  his  ''Confessions  of  an  Inquiring  Spirit," 
— published  after  his  death, — and  in  some  others  of  his 
compositions,  his  sentiments  are  expressed  with  a  free- 
dom, brilliancy,  and  power  which  have  rendered  them 
potent  in  shaping  modern  thought.  The  Bible  he 
terms  a  library  of  infinite  value,  that  must  have  in  it  a 
divine  spirit,  as  it  appeals  to  all  the  hidden  springs  of 
feeling.  " Whatever  yz;/^/i"  me,"  he  writes,  "bears  wit- 
ness that  it  has  proceeded  from  a  Holy  Spirit."  "In 
the  Bible,  there  is  more  that  finds  me  than  I  have  ex- 
perienced in  all  other  books  put  together ;  the  words  of 
the  Bible  find  me  at  greater  depths  of  my  being  ;  and 
whatever  finds  me  brings  with  it  an  irresistible  evi- 
dence of  its  having  proceeded  from  the  Holy  Spirit." 
Then  he  declares  himself  against  "  the  doctrine  which 
requires  me  to  believe  that  not  only  what  finds  me,  but 


266      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

all  that  exists  in  the  sacred  volume,  and  which  I  am 
bound  to  find  therein,  was  not  only  inspired  by,  that  is, 
composed  by  man  under  the  actuating  influence  of,  the 
Holy  Spirit,  but  likewise  dictated  by  an  infallible  intel- 
ligence ;  that  the  writers,  each  and  all,  were  divinely 
informed,  as  well  as  inspired."  Such  a  doctrine  he  re- 
jects, as  it  must  imply  infallibility  in  physical  science 
and  in  everything  else  as  much  as  in  faith,  in  things 
natural  no  less  than  in  spiritual.  He  believes  that  the 
word  of  the  Lord  came  to  Samuel  and  Isaiah  and  the 
rest,  and  that  these  words  have  been  faithfully  re- 
corded ;  but  he  recognizes  no  special  need  for  super- 
natural aid  in  the  recording,  except  where  God  directly 
promises  assistance. 

Referring  to  the  power  the  various  biographies  con- 
tained in  the  Bible  have  over  feeling,  life,  and  conduct, 
he  breaks  forth  into  impassioned  eloquence: 

But  let  me  once  be  persuaded  that  all  these  heart-awakening 
utterances  of  human  hearts,  of  men  of  like  passions  with  my- 
self,— their  sorrowing,  rejoicing,  suffering,  triumphing, — are  but 
a  diviiia  comniedia  of  a  supernatural  ventriloquist  ;  that  the 
royal  harper,  to  whom  I  have  so  often  submitted  myself  as  a 
many-stringed  instrument  for  his  fire-tipped  fingers  to  traverse, 
while  every  several  nerve  of  emotion,  passion,  thought,  that 
thrills  the  flesh  and  blood  of  our  common  humanity  responded  to 
the  touch  ;  that  this  sweet  psalmist  of  Israel  was  himself  a  mere 
instrument, — a  harp,  an  automaton, — poet,  mourner,  suppliant, 
all  gone, — all  sympathy,  all  example, — I  listen  in  awe  and  fear, 
but  in  perplexity  and  confusion  of  spirit. 

Similar  sentiments  have  found  expression  in  the 
works  of  Frederick  Denison  Maurice,  Charles  Kingsley, 
Dean  Alford,  Robertson  Smith,  Professor  Sanday, 
Frederick  Robertson,  and  Doctor  Arnold,  not  to  men- 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  267 

tion  a  host  of  other  scholarly  names.     Frederick  Rob- 
ertson writes  : 

The  inspiration  of  the  Bible  is  a  large  subject.  I  hold  it  in- 
spired, not  dictated.  It  is  the  word  of  God  ;  the  words  of  men  ; 
as  the  former  perfect,  as  the  latter  imperfect.  God  the  Spirit  as 
a  sanctifier  does  not  produce  absolute  perfection  of  human  char- 
acter ;  God  the  Spirit  as  an  inspirer  does  not  produce  absolute 
perfection  of  human  knowledge.  I  believe  bibliolatry  to  be  as 
superstitious,  as  false,  and  almost  as  dangerous  as  Romanism. 

In  harmony  with  this  statement,  Schaff  testifies : 
"  No  inspiration  theory  can  stand  for  a  moment  which 
does  not  leave  room  for  the  personal  agency  and  indi- 
vidual peculiarities  of  the  sacred  authors  and  the  exer- 
cise of  their  natural  faculties  in  writing."  And  Arnold, 
in  more  vigorous  and  decided  language,  expresses  the 
end  of  the  whole  matter : 

It  is  an  unwarrantable  interpretation  of  the  word  to  mean  by 
an  inspired  work,  a  work  to  which  God  has  communicated  his 
own  perfections,  so  that  the  slightest  error  or  defect  is  inconceiv- 
able. .  .  Surely  many  of  our  words  and  many  of  our  actions  are 
spoken  and  done  by  the  inspiration  of  God's  Spirit,  without 
whom  we  can  do  nothing  acceptable  to  God.  Yet  does  the  Holy 
Spirit  so  inspire  us  as  to  communicate  to  us  his  perfections?  Are 
our  best  words  or  works  utterly  free  from  error  or  from  sin  ?  All 
inspiration  does  not  then  destroy  the  human  and  fallible  part  in 
the  nature  it  inspires,  it  does  not  change  man  into  God. 

Recent  research,  if  its  labors  have  any  value  at  all, 
imperatively  demands  that  the  substance  of  these  various 
definitions  be  accepted.  Their  scope  affords  ample 
room  for  new  cosmogonal  conceptions,  for  the  natu- 
ralization of  geological  chronologies  and  evolutionary 
processes,  and  for  the  elucidation  of  the  moral  difficul- 


268      CIIKISIIANITV    IN    Tllli    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ties  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  reconciliation  of  dis- 
crepancies of  the  New.  These  modern  researches  shut 
us  up  to  this  general  view  of  inspiration  or  render  irre- 
sistible the  abandonment  of  inspiration  altogether.  No 
doubt  for  the  time  being  some  of  the  radical  critics  are 
inclining  toward  the  latter  alternative;  but  the  most 
spiritual  among  them,  like  Professor  Sanday  and  Pro- 
fessor George  Adam  Smith,  have  welcomed  the  former, 
and,  while  I  am  not  aiming  in  these  lectures  to  set  forth 
my  own  opinions,  it  does  seem  to  me  that  there  is 
nothing  in  this  conclusion  subversive  of  Bible  teachings 
on  the  subject. 

The  word  "  inspiration "  occurs  only  twice  in  the 
Bible  :  once  in  the  book  of  Job,  "  There  is  a  spirit  in 
man  and  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty  giveth  them 
understanding,"  and  in  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  Timothy, 
"  Every  scripture  inspired  of  God  is  also  profitable  for 
teaching,  for  reproof,  for  correction,"  etc.^  The  same 
term,  however,  is  employed  in  two  additional  passages,  but 
not  translated  by  the  same  word.  The  one  occurs  where 
God  is  said  to  breathe  on  Adam  and  he  becomes  a 
living  soul,  and  the  other  where  Christ  breathes  on 
the  apostles  and  they  receive  the  Holy  Ghost.  From 
these  instances  we  learn  that  the  expression  simply 
denotes  a  divine  inbreathing,  but  conveys  no  assurance 
of  perfectibility,  either  in  human  conduct  or  in  human 
thought.  Adam's  inspiration  did  not  preserve  him  from 
transgression  and  the  fall,  nor  does  the  word  itself  carry 
with  it  the  assurance  that  the  energy  it  describes  would 
necessarily  and  in  every  respect  shield  the  recipient 
from  error  and  misapprehension.     What   the   word  in 

'Job  32  :  8  ;   2  Timothy  3  :  16,  17. 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  269 

connection  with  the  Bible  manifestly  teaches  is  that 
God  was  its  primal  source  ;  that  its  soul  is  an  emana- 
tion from  his  own  Spirit ;  and  that,  as  in  the  case  of 
Adam,  the  body  may  have  been  made  out  of  the  dust 
of  the  ground,  but  only  through  a  divine  inbreathing 
could  it  become  ''a  living  soul."  Our  Lord  himself 
has  told  us,  "  It  is  the  spirit  that  quickeneth  ;  the  flesh 
profiteth  nothing  :  the  words  that  I  have  spoken  unto 
you  are  spirit  and  are  life  "  ;  and  St.  Paul  has  a  similar 
thought  in  his  mind  when  he  writes,  *'  The  letter  kill- 
eth,  but  the  spirit  giveth  life."  ^  I  lay  stress  on  the 
word  "  life,"  because  it  denotes  a  mysterious  force,  all 
pervasive,  whose  operations  can  no  more  be  reduced  to 
strict  formula  than  can  the  blowing  of  the  wind.  What 
we  know  of  inspiration  from  the  Scriptures  is  simply 
tJiat  it  is,  not  what  are  its  modes  and  methods.  We 
infer  that  it  must  illuminate,  that  it  must  invigorate  the 
mind,  at  times  disclose  visions,  and  at  other  times  whis- 
per messages  from  God. 

Experts  have  informed  us  that  they  have  been  unable 
to  decide  the  exact  height  of  the  Venus  de  Medici. 
They  say  that  the  ''statue  which  enchants  the  world" 
defies  precise  measurement,  because  it  is  in  a  slightly 
stooping  attitude.  A  similar  difficulty  lies  in  the  way 
of  a  fixed  and  accurate  definition  of  inspiration.  There 
is  in  the  Bible  so  manifest  a  condescension  to  human 
weaknesses,  lowliness,  and  intellectual  limitations,  so 
wonderful  a  bending  of  the  highest  intelligence  to  the 
level  of  the  humblest,  that  our  rules  and  yardsticks  are 
all  at  fault.  We  cannot  mete  out  bounds  and  propor- 
tions.    The  charm  of  the  Bible  we  catch,  we  feel  "  the 

^  John  6  :  63  ;  2  Cor.  3  :  6. 


270      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

enchantment,"  but  we  can  no  more  exhaustively  explain 
and  nicely  determine  its  quality  than  we  can  define  the 
nature  of  genius,  with  which  it  has  affinity,  but  from 
which  it  is  as  wide  apart  as  starlight  from  sunrise. 

That  some  of  these  messages  may  have  been  verbally 
given,  have  been  verbally  remembered,  and  even  ver- 
bally recorded,  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  general  view 
here  unfolded.  It  is  against  the  hard,  mechanical 
notion,  which  comprehends  everything  good,  bad,  and 
indifferent  in  one  class  and  regards  the  entire  record, 
without  distinction,  as  having  been  dictated  by  the  Al- 
mighty. Modern  scholarship  lifts  up  its  voice  in  con- 
demnation, but  in  maintaining  its  antagonism  it  is  under 
no  necessity  to  reject  everything,  like  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, as  being  the  very  articulated  thought  of 
the  Almighty.  It  is  not  bound  to  commit  itself  on 
either  side  of  this  question.  "  Holy  men  spake  as  they 
were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  and  the  Holy  Ghost 
may,  as  occasion  required,  have  imparted  the  termi- 
nology as  well  as  the  impulse.  But  this  admission  must 
not  be  carried  too  far.  It  must  not  be  permitted  to 
obscure  God's  infinite  variety  in  influencing  his  crea- 
tures or  lead  to  the  untenable  inference  that  every 
expression  used  was  originally  derived  from  inspiration, 
for  we  must  never  forget  the  growing  conviction  of 
Christian  scholars  as  stated  by  Professor  W.  Robertson 
Smith  : 

He  spoke  not  only  through  them  (his  prophets),  but  to  them 
and  in  them.  They  had  an  intelligent  share  in  the  divine  con- 
verse with  them,  and  we  can  no  more  understand  the  divine  word 
without  taking  them  into  account  than  we  can  understand  a 
human  conversation  without  taking  account  of  both  interlocutors. 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  2/1 

To  try  to  suppress  the  human  side  of  the  Bible  in  the  interests  of 
the  purity  of  the  divine  word  is  as  great  a  folly  as  to  think  that  a 
father's  talk  with  his  child  can  be  best  reported  by  leaving  out 
everything  which  the  child  said,  thought,  and  felt. 

If  we  take  this  human  element  into  account  it  would 
be  equal  folly  to  suppose  that  the  child  would  always 
reproduce  his  father's  language,  however  he  might 
venerate  it,  precisely  and  without  the  least  verbal  mod- 
ification. There  is  no  real  necessity  for  such  minute 
and  painfully  exact  correspondence.  We  may  have  the 
mind  of  the  Spirit  without  it,  and  that  we  have  is  proven 
by  the  wonderful  power  the  Bible  has  over  multitudes 
who  are  not  in  bondage  to  the  letter  and  who  have  no 
very  distinct  recollection  of  its  words. 

The  investigations  which  have  so  completely  revolu- 
tionized modern  religious  thought  on  this  subject  logi- 
cally necessitate  the  inference  that  the  trustworthiness 
of  the  Scriptures  and  not  merely  their  inspiration  con- 
stitutes the  true  basis  of  their  appeal  to  reason.  Here- 
tofore it  has  been  argued  that  we  should  receive  the 
teachings  of  the  Bible  because  they  are  inspired,  but 
now  it  is  claimed  that  we  should  acknowledge  the  in- 
spiration because  of  the  teachings.  It  is  truth  that 
proves  the  inspiration,  not  inspiration  the  truth. 

But  at  once  the  query  is  raised,  What  need,  then,  of 
inspiration  at  all  ?  It  certainly  is  not  needed  as  evi- 
dence, for  itself  is  the  very  thing  in  question.  Perplex- 
ity will  disappear  when  it  is  remembered  that  inspiration 
is  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  supernatural  origin, 
that  it  asserts  the  action  of  God  on  his  creatures,  and 
that  for  it  not  to  be  maintained  would  be  an  abandon- 
ment of  the  belief  in  a  divinely  given  faith.      In  other 


2/2      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

words,  it  is  practically  the  same  thing  as  saying  that  ''the 
Bible  is  a  revelation  from  God."  If  such  an  affirmation 
were  not  made  the  book  would  have  no  unique  and  sa- 
cred authority  over  us.  But  how  are  we  to  know  that  it 
has  this  authority.'*  Not,  surely,  because  it  is  asserted, 
but  because  of  the  trustworthiness  of  what  it  announces 
and  enjoins.  Inspiration  is  indispensable  to  the  product, 
but  the  product  itself  must  be  judged  by  its  veracious- 
ness  and  its  general  trustworthiness.  Consequently  we 
find  in  the  Bible  itself  sundry  exhortations  and  divers 
explicit  warnings  which  are  somewhat  irrelevant  if  we 
are  not  to  test  the  credentials  of  an  alleged  inspired 
man  or  book  by  the  character  of  the  teachings  pub- 
lished. We  read  :  '*  When  a  prophet  speaketh  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord,  if  the  thing  follow  not,  nor  come 
to  pass,  that  is  the  thing  which  the  Lord  hath  not 
spoken  ;  the  prophet  hath  spoken  it  presumptuously : 
thou  shalt  not  be  afraid  of  him."  ^  Here,  then,  we  have 
one  claiming  to  be  sent  of  God,  to  be  inspired,  and  yet 
he  may  be  set  aside  if  his  testimony  is  false.  Again  : 
''  The  prophet  which  prophesieth  of  peace,  when  the 
word  of  the  prophet  shall  come  to  pass,  then  shall  the 
prophet  be  known,  that  the  Lord  hath  truly  sent  him."  ^ 
And  if  his  word  shall  not  accord  with  some  other  kind 
of  fact,  with  a  fact  that  is  instead  of  one  to  be,  we  are 
under  no  obligation  to  accept  his  message.  The  greater 
the  divergence  between  his  declaration  and  the  fact,  the 
less  credible  becomes  his  assumption  of  heavenly  au- 
thority and  inspiration.  When  St.  John  writes,  ''  Be- 
loved, believe  not  every  spirit,  but  prove  the  spirits 
whether  they  are  of  God,  because  many  false  prophets 

»  Deut.  l8  :  22.  =*  Jer.  28  :  9. 


THE    BIBLE   AND    CRITICISM  273 

are  gone  out  into  the  world ";  ^  and  when  St.  Paul 
adds,  "  Prove  all  things,"  ^  we  have  sufficient  warrant 
for  subjecting  every  alleged  revelation  to  close  and 
thorough  scrutiny. 

It  is  interesting  also  to  observe  that  St.  John,  when 
closing  his  Gospel,  grounds  its  right  to  acceptance  not 
on  its  inspiration,  but  on  its  truth  ;  ^  and  that  St.  Luke, 
when  he  takes  in  hand  to  set  forth  in  order  a  declara- 
tion of  these  things,  reminds  Theophilus  of  his  eminent 
qualifications  for  the  task,  and  that  among  them  inspira- 
tion is  not  enumerated.^  Our  Saviour  likewise,  in  his 
controversies  with  the  Jews,  never  assumes  that  what- 
ever he  says  should  be  believed  because  he  says  it,  but 
only  and  always  because  it  is  true.  He  challenges  in- 
vestigation and  expects  that  he  will  be  finally  judged  by 
the  same  rule  that  he  employs  in  judging  others.^  This 
same  principle  is  evolved  from  the  findings  and  reason- 
ing of  higher  criticism.  While  it  concedes  that  there  is 
an  inspired  revelation  in  the  word  of  God,  it  imposes  on 
us  the  necessity  of  search,  of  inquiry,  that  the  divine 
may  be  discriminated  from  the  human,  the  true  from 
the  erroneous,  the  essential  from  the  adventitious,  the 
permanent  from  the  evanescent.  In  pursuing  these  in- 
vestigations, it  may  lay  down  arbitrary  canons  of  crit- 
icism, and  may  adopt  criteria  for  its  guidance  destruc- 
tive of  the  supernatural  ;  but  while  these  extremes — the 
fanaticism  of  rationalism — are  to  be  deplored,  they  do 
not  invalidate  or  discredit  the  obligation  to  ''  prove  all 
things." 

To  many  people,  nothing  seems  more  disastrous  than 

1  I  John  4:1.  2  I  Thess.  5  :  21.  '  John  21  :  24. 

*  Luke  I  :  1-4.  ^  John  4  and  8. 


2/4      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

this  encouragement  to  examine,  weigh,  accept,  or  reject, 
according  to  evidence.  Yet  how  is  it  to  be  avoided  ? 
We  are  told  that  it  must  unsettle  the  foundations  of 
faith,  and  lead  to  alienations  and  divisions  in  the  Chris- 
tian world.  But  it  is  a  legitimate  question  to  ask  :  Has 
any  other  theory  saved  the  world  from  the  spectacle  of 
sects,  of  wrangling  parties,  and  hostile  camps  ?  Our 
condition  can  hardly  be  worse  than  it  has  been  ;  and,  as 
verbal  inspiration  has  not  preserved  the  church  from 
multiplied  schisms,  neither  has  it  protected  the  Scrip- 
tures from  reckless,  irreverent,  ridiculous,  and  contra- 
dictory interpretations.  Where,  then,  is  its  practical 
advantage  ?  A  Christianity  rent,  and  each  particular 
part  claiming  that  it  rests  on  an  infallible  word,  and 
probably  set  against  all  serious  search  into  the  merit  of 
its  position  because  of  this  very  claim,  is  the  sad  com- 
ment on  the  value  of  a  hypothesis  which  sets  itself  forth 
as  a  healer  of  divisions. 

But,  it  is  asked,  if  this  hypothesis  is  abandoned,  how 
are  we  to  know  what  is  from  God,  what  from  man,  and 
what  is  binding  on  us,  and  what  is  not }  How  know  ? 
Set  the  imprecatory  psalms  over  against  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  and  it  is  scarcely  conceivable  that  any  intel- 
lect should  fail  to  detect  the  distance  between  them  nor 
doubt  which  is  to  be  of  authority  in  human  conduct. 
Discrimination  is  not  a  difficult  task,  and,  on  either  hy- 
pothesis, it  is  unavoidable.  Though  we  may  believe 
that  every  word  in  the  Bible  has  been  dictated,  that 
does  not  commend  to  us  the  conduct  of  Samson,  Ahab, 
Judas,  and  of  other  kindred  souls.  We  set  these  men 
aside,  just  as  we  do  some  hasty  and  violent  expressions 
which  have  fallen  from  the  lips  of  Bible  saints,  as  not 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  2/5 

being  for  our  imitation.  Whether  we  like  to  do  so  or 
not,  we  must  discriminate  if  we  are  to  be  really  helped 
by  the  Scriptures.  We  constantly  do  it ;  and  were  it 
otherwise,  we  can  readily  see  how  the  failure  might  open 
the  way  for  serious  departures  from  morality.  Every- 
thing in  the  Bible  inspired,  and  nothing  to  be  questioned 
or  distinguished  from  some  other  thing,  then  why  may 
we  not  follow  in  the  way  of  Cain,  or  in  the  evil  way  of 
David,  and  delude  ourselves,  because  such  things  are  re- 
corded in  the  Scriptures,  that  by  some  mysterious  pro- 
cess we  are  blameless  ?  I  wish  I  was  quite  sure  that  we 
have  not  in  this  kind  of  confusion  and  mystification  an 
explanation  of  transgressions  that  are  repeatedly  com- 
mitted by  individuals  who  pride  themselves  on  their  be- 
lief in  the  inspiration  of  every  word  and  sign  of  the 
sacred  text ;  but  I  am  not,  and  from  what  I  have  ob- 
served of  the  subtle  influence  of  creeds,  I  must  ever 
regard  it  as  perilous  to  the  interests  of  morals  to  speak 
in  unguarded  terms  of  everything  in  the  Bible  being 
equally  inspired  and  equally  of  divine  authority. 

To  these  and  similar  suggestions,  the  objection  has 
been  ventured  that,  as  human  reason  is  fallible,  we  can- 
not have  confidence  in  its  decisions  on  the  value  of  what 
is  made  known  in  holy  writ.  There  is,  however,  a  pre- 
vious question  that  bears  decisively  on  this  objection  : 
How  can  a  fallible  intellect  decide  on  the  infallibility  of 
an  infallible  book  ?  If  its  processes  are  unworthy  of 
respect  in  the  one  instance,  what  entitles  them  to  confi- 
dence in  the  other.'*  How  can  it  know  a  book  to  be  in- 
fallible, except  by  examining  the  evidence  on  which  it 
rests  its  claims  ?  And  if  it  is  competent  to  do  this,  why 
should  we  suspect  its  ability  to  discriminate   between 


276      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

what  is  divine  and  what  is  human  in  the  record  itself  ? 
Twist  and  writhe  as  we  may,  it  is  impossible  to  escape 
the  obligation  that  presses  on  us  to  analyze  thoroughly 
the  content  of  holy  writ,  to  distinguish  continually  be- 
tween the  sheep  and  the  goats,  and  to  recognize  the 
tares,  even  though  we  may  not  be  able  to  pull  them  up 
from  the  sacred  soil  where  they  flourish,  without  in 
some  way  imperiling  the  wheat. 

It  was  Schiller  who  indulged  the  vain  desire  : 

Oh,  that  an  angel  would  descend  from  heaven, 
And  scoop  for  me  the  right,  the  uncorrupted. 
With  a  pure  hand  from  the  pure  fount  of  light. 

But  no  such  angel  has  been  sent.  God  has  conferred 
on  us  the  honor  of  gathering  from  the  fount  of  light  the 
rays  that  are  necessary  to  illumine  our  pathway  to  the 
grave.  Why  are  we  so  anxious  to  escape  this  dignity } 
Why  do  we  not  see  that,  within  the  circle  of  this  very 
crown,  man's  nobility  is  discernible  ?  By  this  exalted 
obligation  man  is  assigned  an  elevated  rank  among  in- 
telligences ;  and  by  its  fulfillment,  and  in  no  other  way, 
he  develops  the  latent  possibilities  of  his  spiritual  nature 
until  he  need  not  fear  to  stand  in  the  same  presence 
with  cherubim  and  seraphim  before  the  great  white 
throne. 

Concerning  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in 
our  views  of  the  Bible,  and  which  necessitate  the  kind 
of  treatment  v/e  have  described,  the  Rev.  William  Brock 
has  written  with  a  suggestiveness  and  beauty  that  can- 
not be  overpraised.      He  says  : 

We  have  a  conviction  as  firm  as  our  fathers  had  of  its  unique 
character  as  a  record  of  divine  revelations  ;  and  we  teach  our  chil- 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  2// 

dren  to  turn  its  pages  with  the  olden  reverence  and  love.  But  we 
cannot  present  it  to  them  exactly  as  it  was  taught  to  us.  It  is  no 
longer  the  mysterious  aerolite,  fallen  in  one  glowing  mass  from 
heaven  and  incapable  of  analysis  ;  it  is  rather  a  succession  of 
stratified  deposits,  each  with  its  own  history  to  be  ascertained  and 
its  characteristic  contents  to  be  explored.  It  is  a  book,  but  it  is 
still  more  a  library  or  a  literature,  comparable  in  extent  and  variety 
"  to  a  selection  of  English  literature  from  Bede  to  Milton."  It 
comprises  poetry  and  philosophy,  tradition  and  history,  familiar 
letters  and  profound  treatises,  the  regular  narrative  of  the  biog- 
rapher and  the  raptured  vision  of  the  seer.  It  has  its  outer  and 
inner  courts,  its  sanctuary  and  holiest  of  all.  It  must  be  taught 
with  a  fine  sense  of  proportion,  a  light  touch  on  matters  of  mere 
transitory  interest,  and  a  stress  upon  essential  truths.  The  old 
axiom,  which  assumed  that  every  pin  of  the  tabernacle  was  as 
precious  as  the  altar  or  the  ark,  can  no  longer  be  admitted.  .  . 
There  are  indeed  persons  now  living  who  can  well  remember  how 
they  trembled  in  their  childhood,  lest  in  their  Scripture  lessons 
they  should  misplace  a  letter  or  mispronounce  a  word,  and  so 
bring  the  curse  of  Rev.  22  :  19  upon  their  heads.  It  was  time  that 
such  bondage  should  be  broken.^ 

Yes,  it  is  broken  ;  and  the  Bible,  thus  conceived  and 
thus  interpreted,  has  nothing  to  fear  from  modern  re- 
search. Neither  science  nor  higher  criticism  has  in- 
vaUdated  or  can  invalidate  its  authority  and  trustworthi- 
ness when  it  is  not  hampered  by  indefensible  views  of 
its  nature  and  composition.  What,  within  the  last  few 
years,  has  been  advanced  by  higher  criticism  against 
some  of  its  representations  has  not  succeeded  in  hold- 
ing its  own.  Higher  criticism  is  now  questioning  some 
of  its  own  premises  and  several  of  its  own  generaliza- 
tions. A  reaction  has  set  in ;  and  while  it  will  not 
carry  us  back  to  the  mechanical  and  unyielding  views 

^  "Ancient  Faith  in  Modern  Light,"  p.  222. 


2/8      CHRISTIAMTV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

of  the  fathers,  it  will  sweep  away  a  good  deal  of  the 
critical  guesswork  which  has  been  set  forth  confidently 
as  fact  and  which  challenged  the  integrity  of  the  book 
itself,  and  will  leave  the  Bible,  on  the  close  of  this  cen- 
tury, more  firmly  established  in  the  confidence  of  man- 
kind than,  as  writes  the  Rev.  R.  F.  Horton,  it  was  at 
the  beginning  : 

The  higher  criticism,  or  the  scientific  investigation  of  the  au- 
thorship, composition,  dates,  and  occasions  of  the  Bible  writings, 
can  only  be  our  friend.  It  cannot  rob  us  of  our  inspired  Scrip- 
tures ;  there  they  will  be,  when  it  has  done  its  best,  shining  upon 
us  like  the  c^uiet  stars  when  the  surf  and  the  drift  of  the  storm 
have  passed  away.  All  it  can  do,  all  it  wishes  to  do,  is  to  tell  us 
the  truth  about  our  Scriptures.  Its  hypothetical  theories,  its  ex- 
travagant conjectures,  the  excesses  into  which  young  speculative 
sciences  always  run,  will  be  quietly  moderated  by  the  sure  preva- 
lence of  truth.  Its  clearly  established  results,  less  or  more,  will 
be  an  unmixed  gain  to  us  all  ;  they  will  not  destroy  our  idea  of 
inspiration  ;  we  shall  in  future  include  them  in  our  idea  of  inspi- 
ration.^ 

But  recent  research,  having  helped  us  to  a  definition 
of  inspiration  and  having  suggested  the  necessary  test 
of  its  genuineness,  proceeds  yet  further  and  vindicates 
it  from  the  assaults  of  those  who  deny  it  altogether,  by 
sanctioning  and  sustaining  *'  the  gradualness  of  revela- 
tion." Evolution,  as  it  is  taught  in  science,  finds  some- 
thing like  its  counterpart  in  the  Scriptures;  and  the 
more  its  essential  principle,  as  a  method,  is  realized  and 
admitted,  the  easier  it  is  to  explain  the  import  of  those 
ominous  things  which  have  tended  to  impair  the  au- 
thority of  the  Bible.  Higher  criticism,  modern  phi- 
losophy, scholarly  exegesis,  all  combine  to  effect  this  de- 

1  "Inspiration  and  the  Bible,"  p.  20. 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  279 

sirable  end.  The  bishop  of  Exeter  reminds  us  that 
*'  the  Christian  rehgion  does  not  profess  (as  does,  for 
instance,  the  Mohammedan)  to  be  wrapped  up  in  one  di- 
vine communication  made  to  one  man,  and  admitting 
thereafter  of  no  modifications."     Then  he  adds  : 

Though  resting  on  divine  revelation,  it  is  professedly  a  develop- 
ment, and  is  thus  in  harmony  with  the  Creator  s  operations  in 
nature.  Whether  we  consider  what  is  taught  concerning  the 
heavenly  moral  law,  or  concerning  human  nature  and  its  moral 
and  spiritual  needs,  or  concerning  Almighty  God  and  his  deal- 
ings with  us  his  creatures,  it  is  undeniahle  that  the  teaching  of 
the  Bible  is  quite  different  at  the  end  from  what  it  is  at  the  be- 
ginning. 

This  thought,  however,  did  not  originate  with  his 
grace  of  Exeter.  It  is  attributed,  first  of  all,  to  Lessing, 
who  taught  that  revelation  is  to  be  conceived  of  as  a 
divine  education  of  the  race.  At  present,  it  finds  wide- 
spread acceptance  among  thinkers  and  scholars.  Mr. 
Gladstone,  in  his  ''  Reply  "  to  Colonel  Ingersoll,  acknowl- 
edges that  "  the  moral  history  of  man,  in  its  principal 
stream,  has  been  distinctly  an  evolution  from  the  first 
until  now."  In  one  of  his  latest  articles,  the  lamented 
Proctor,  while  not  sympathizing  with  the  English  pre- 
mier theologically,  gently  reproved  Colonel  Ingersoll  for 
not  placing  himself  in  the  position  of  the  old  believers 
in  regard  to  God,  and  for  failing  to  take  account  of  the 
progress  from  the  crude  views  of  primitive  ages  to  those 
that  now  prevail.  Then,  simply  as  a  student  and  not 
as  a  Christian,  he  writes : 

Within  the  limits  of  the  Old  Testament,  we  recognize  the  evo- 
lution of  man '  s   moral    nature.     We  have  but  to  compare  the 


280      CHRISTIANITY    IX    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

teachings  of  the  first  and  greater  Isaiah  (chap.  1-39),  with  the 
teaching  found  in  any  book  or  any  chapter  from  the  opening  of 
Genesis  to  the  end  of  Chronicles,  to  recognize  the  development  of 
a  morality  so  much  higher  and  so  much  purer,  the  recognition  of  a 
Deity  so  much  worthier  of  love  and  reverence,  that  we  might  im- 
agine we  had  lit  upon  a  preacher  of  a  different  race,  a  race  as  far 
in  advance  of  the  Israelitish  race  of  old  as  the  Caucasian  is  in  ad- 
vance of  the  Papuans  of  to-day.  "To  what  purpose  is  the  mul- 
titude of  your  sacrifices  unto  me?  saith  the  Lord  ;  .  .  I  delight 
not  in  the  blood  of  bullocks,  or  of  lambs,  or  of  he  goats.  .  . 
Bring  no  more  vain  oblations  ;  incense  is  an  abomination  unto 
me  ;  the  new  moons  and  Sabbaths,  the  calling  of  assemblies,  .  . 
your  appointed  feasts  my  soul  hateth.  .  .  Put  away  the  evil  of 
your  doings  from  before  mine  eyes  ;  cease  to  do  evil  ;  learn  to  do 
well  ;  seek  judgment  [justice],  relieve  the  oppressed,  judge  [seek 
justice  for]  the  fatherless,  plead  for  the  widow." 

What  is  thus  discerned  by  Professor  Proctor  has 
been  admirably  stated  by  Newman  Smyth  in  his  ''  Old 
Faiths  in  a  New  Light,"  and,  on  the  distinctively  ortho- 
dox side,  has  been  unreservedly  admitted  by  Professor 
George  P.  Fisher  of  Yale.  The  latter  refers  to  the 
*'  Gradualness  of  Revelation  "  as  a  fact,  and  adds  :  *'  Like 
the  subsequent  spread  of  the  gospel,  it  was  '  first  the 
blade,  then  the  ear,  then  the  full  corn  in  the  ear.'  This 
inchoate,  preparatory,  and,  in  this  sense,  imperfect 
character  is  ascribed  to  the  Old  Testament  system,  both 
in  the  Old  Testament  itself  and  in  the  New.  The 
whole  form  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in  the  earlier  dis- 
pensation of  God  was  provisional ;  the  disclosure  of  God 
was  partial  and  increasing ;  laws  fell  short  of  the  abso- 
lute standard  of  moral  duty  ;  rites  were  adapted  to  relig- 
ious feelings  and  to  perceptions  not  yet  mature ;  the 
type  of  character  corresponded  to  the  inadequate  con- 
ceptions of  God  ;  the  ethical  and  emotional  expressions 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  28 1 

answered  to  the  several  stages  of  revelation  to  which 
they  pertained.  All  this  ought  to  be  as  familiar  to 
readers  of  the  Bible  as  the  alphabet.  Unhappily,  it  has 
been  often  overlooked  by  Christians  and  persistently 
ignored  by  adversaries  of  Christianity."  Our  Saviour 
himself  taught  that  he  came  "  not  to  destroy  the  law 
and  the  prophets,"  neither  to  discredit  nor  repudiate 
them,  ''but  to  fulfill."  So  ''the  law  and  the  prophets 
were  until  John,  but  now  the  kingdom  of  God  is 
preached  "  ;  that  is,  a  higher  stage  has  been  reached  in 
the  history  of  revelation,  and  hence  the  old  dispensation 
was  only  "the  shadow  of  good  things  to  come,"  while 
the  body  was  of  Christ.  Its  ideas  are  absorbed,  ex- 
panded, transformed,  completed,  in  the  new  economy  ; 
and  to  them  are  added  fresh  disclosures  almost  sufficient 
by  themselves  to  form  a  whole  system  of  doctrine.  The 
new,  indeed,  rests  on  the  foundations  of  the  old  ;  but 
the  building  takes  to  itself  the  glory  of  a  temple  not 
made  by  hands.  Jesus  never  hesitates  to  contrast  his 
precepts  with  those  enacted  in  the  former  ages,  and 
even  sets  aside  Moses  with  his  imperious,  "  It  is  written 
in  the  law,  .  .  but  /  say  unto  you."  He  spoke  "with 
authority,  and  not  as  the  scribes,"  and  with  an  authority 
so  final  and  absolute  that  it  superseded  all  words  in 
conflict  with  his  own.  Referring  to  an  important  Mo- 
saic regulation  of  divorce,  he  says  that  it  was  enacted 
on  account  of  "the  hardness"  of  men's  hearts,  that  is, 
because  of  their  semi-barbarous  condition,  and,  in  a 
measure,  as  a  protection  of  the  woman  against  arbitrary 
power  and  social  ostracism  ;  but  though  it  was  good  as 
far  as  it  went,  it  was  not  in  accord  with  the  higher  esti- 
mate he  revealed  of  the  sacredness  of  marriage,  and 


282      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

consequently  he  swept  it  away  and  substituted  a  nobler 
principle. 

We  surely  must  see  at  a  glance  the  need  that  existed 
for  training,  discipline,  education,  relatively  keeping 
pace  with  the  successive  instalments  of  revealed  truth, 
the  one  preparing  the  way  for  the  other,  and  the  other, 
in  its  turn,  elevating  intellectually  and  morally,  and  so 
fitting  for  the  reception  of  yet  additional  light.  This 
process  is  conspicuously  prominent  throughout  the 
entire  history  of  Israel.  In  the  patriarchal  reformation, 
in  the  Egyptian  bondage,  in  the  exodus,  in  the  mon- 
archy, in  the  exile  and  the  return,  progress  is  obvious 
in  the  direction  of  grander  ideas  of  God  and  of  truer 
and  broader  views  of  human  hope  and  duty.  It  will 
also  be  observed,  that  every  step  in  national  develop- 
ment, every  fresh  movement  leading  to  a  higher  plane 
of  thought  and  life,  is  inaugurated  by  the  impartation  of 
a  new  truth  or  the  resuscitation  of  an  old  one,  for  the 
effective  action  of  which  preceding  struggles  and  expe- 
riences have  prepared  the  way.  Thus  Abraham  re- 
ceived a  divine  word  and  gracious  disclosure  impelling 
him  in  the  direction  of  monotheistic  reform.  Moses 
takes  the  law  from  the  hand  of  God,  a  gift  demanded  by 
the  needs  of  the  young  nation.  Truth  comes  to  Samuel, 
qualifying  him  for  leadership  and  facilitating  the  unifi- 
cation of  the  long-distracted  and  discordant  population ; 
and  whatever  was  wrought  by  prophets  or  accomplished 
by  wise  rulers  was  due  to  the  divine  voice  speaking  in 
them,  as  in  the  case  of  Isaiah,  or  to  a  divine  message 
recovered,  as  in  the  case  of  Ezra,  who  led  Israel  on- 
ward toward  the  Messianic  age  through  the  restoration 
of  the  books  of  the  law.     Thus,  through  the  centuries, 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  283 

the  light  advanced,  and  as  the  sun's  approach  at  day  is 
heralded  by  mountain  peaks  aflame  with  its  glory,  so 
the  distinct  epochs  and  leading  events  of  Israel's  career 
blazed  with  the  radiance  of  the  ever-increasing  light, 
until  it  reached  meridian  splendor  in  the  person  and 
ministry  of  Christ — pledge  and  promise  too  of  the  mil- 
lennial reign,  when  shadow  and  darkness  shall  be  ban- 
ished from  the  earth  forever. 

To  this  theory  modern  scholarship  is  pledged,  and  of 
its  value  as  the  solvent  of  Bible  difficulties  there  can  be 
no  doubt.  Only  a  few  illustrations  of  its  practical  bear- 
ing on  such  difficulties  need  be  given  here,  just  enough 
to  indicate  how  they  have  been  dealt  with  by  nineteenth 
century  thinkers.  It  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  the  list 
of  representations  given  in  the  Old  Testament,  which 
shock  the  moral  sensibilities  of  our  age — representations 
which  have  often  been  the  despair  of  God's  friends  and 
the  delight  of  his  enemies.  Almost  every  attack  on  the 
sacred  volume  during  the  earlier  period  of  this  century 
derived  much  of  its  ammunition  from  this  arsenal.  But 
once  let  the  gradualness  of  revelation  be  established, 
then  most  of  these  damaging  features  disappear  of  them- 
selves. When  the  principle  becomes  a  practical  help  to 
interpretation,  then  the  question  to  be  answered  will  be 
simply  :  Does  the  ethical  and  spiritual  teaching  of  the 
older  Scriptures  ''make  for  righteousness,"  and,  on  the 
whole,  is  their  ultimate  goal  the  highest  conceivable 
good  ?  Mozley,  in  his  lecture,  ''The  End  the  Test  of  a 
Progressive  Revelation,"  has  maintained  the  thesis  sub- 
sequently defended  by  Newman  Smyth  in  the  words  : 
"The  real  morality  of  the  Bible  is  its  final  morality,  the 
morality  in  the  intention  of  the  Lawgiver  from  the  be- 


284      CHRISTIANITY    IX    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ginning."  In  my  judgment,  Doctor  Smyth  himself  has 
made  the  happiest  statement  of  the  position  held  by  ad- 
vocates of  the  progressive  theory  that  can  be  found  in 
contemporaneous  literature.      He  writes  : 

Divine  accommodation  to  a  lower  level  of  human  ideas,  or  im- 
perfect condition  of  man's  knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  is  per- 
fectly moral,  in  so  far  as  it  tends  to  overcome  the  imperfect  and 
to  help  on  the  development  of  conscience  to  that  which  is  per- 
fect ;  in  so  far,  that  is,  as  it  is  the  accommodation  of  the  teacher 
to  the  pupil  in  carrying  out,  and  solely  for  the  sake  of  carrying 
out,  the  design  of  the  whole  course  of  instruction.  Any  accom- 
modation to  error  or  imperfection  which  gives  the  error  new  vi- 
tality, or  makes  the  imperfect  last  longer,  would  not  be  a  justi- 
fiable act  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  but  rather  a  participation  in 
the  fault  of  the  pupil. 

By  this  reasonable  rule  every  portion  of  the  Bible 
may  unhesitatingly  be  tried,  and  its  honest  application, 
I  am  sure,  will  relieve  the  venerable  volume  from  the 
obloquy  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  by  uncandid 
critics,  who  have  steadily  ignored  the  chief  characteristic 
of  the  revelation  it  contains. 

At  the  outset,  it  must  impress  the  student  of  history 
that  the  Jewish  commonwealth,  even  in  the  earlier 
period  and  with  all  its  blemishes,  far  surpassed  other 
ancient  civilizations,  even  at  their  best,  in  all  that  min- 
isters to  the  moral  growth  and  happiness  of  society. 
It  is  not  uncommon  in  our  day  to  hear  pagan  morality 
extolled.  A  few  ennobling  sentiments  are  quoted  from 
poets  or  philosophers,  a  few  virtuous  lives  are  honored, 
and  wdth  serene  self-satisfaction  the  eulogist  closes  his 
reflections  with  some  severe  strictures  on  the  barbarism 
of  the  Jewish  State ;  but,  all  the  while,  he  conveniently 


THE    BIBLE   AND    CRITICISM  285 

overlooks  the  passionate  jealousies,  the  rancorous  rage, 
the  implacable  hate,  the  indecencies  worse  than  adulter- 
ies, the  deadly  cruelties,  the  sanguinary  wars,  the  fratri- 
cidal strife,  and  the  cowardly  self-murders,  by  which 
Greece  and  Rome  and  other  venerable  nationalities 
were  converted  into  veritable  j^andemoniums.  From 
the  siege  of  Troy,  on  account  of  Helen,  to  the  evils 
caused  by  the  fatal  beauty  of  Cleopatra,  and  from  the 
supremacy  of  Aspasia  over  the  chief  men  of  Athens  to 
the  reign  of  the  notorious  Lais  of  Corinth,  savagery, 
licentiousness,  and  every  form  of  impurity  prevailed. 
All  this  is  quietly  ignored  by  the  admirers  of  classic 
paganism  ;  neither  do  they  condescend  to  notice  Roman 
slavery,  that  extended  even  to  whites  and  to  artists, 
teachers,  and  authors,  as  well  as  to  peasants  ;  nor  gladia- 
torial shows,  where  thousands  of  men  were  annually 
butchered  for  the  amusement  of  other  thousands  of 
spectators ;  nor  the  countenance  given  to  infanticide  by 
philosophers  and  statesmen ;  nor  the  common  indulgence 
in  foulest  obscenities  by  men  and  women  of  low  and 
high  degree.  They  read  Epictetus,  not  Herodotus  ; 
Antoninus,  not  Tacitus ;  and  they  fail  to  remind  each 
other  and  the  world  that  Socrates,  in  the  spirit  of  his 
age,  visited  a  prostitute  and  gravely  discussed  how  she 
might  increase  her  earnings ;  how  Plato  considered 
humanity  outside  of  Greece  as  ''barbarian  "  and  would 
hardly  have  reproved  Plautus  for  declaring  that  "  man 
is  a  wolf  to  the  stranger";  and  how  such  enlightened 
emperors  as  Trajan,  and  such  refined  publicists  as 
Pliny,  the  younger,  commended  the  liberality  of  the 
affluent,  who  provided  for  the  massacre  of  their  fellow- 
beings  in  the  bloody  arena  of  the  amphitheatre. 


2S6      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

The  fact  is,  ancient  society  was  through  and  through 
corrupt,  sensual,  devilish,  and,  in  comparison  with  it, 
the  Hebrew  commonwealth,  after  it  was  really  organ- 
ized, and  even  at  the  beginning  of  its  history,  was 
humane,  tolerant,  equitable,  industrious,  and  chaste. 
There  only  in  those  dark  days,  and  even  later  on, 
reigned  the  spirit  of  charity  and  fraternity ;  there  only 
was  the  sheaf  of  grain  left  in  the  field  for  the  gleaner, 
and  the  bunch  of  grapes  in  the  vineyard  for  the  poor  ; 
there  only  was  the  stranger  guarded  from  oppression 
and  the  slave  treated  as  a  man  and  not  as  a  chattel  ; 
and  there  only  were  cruel  pastimes  repudiated  and 
abhorred.  It  was  as  an  oasis  in  the  desert  ;  often, 
indeed,  invaded  by  the  burning  sands  around  it,  but 
ever  affording  to  the  race  some  drops  of  cooling  water 
and  the  protection  of  umbrageous  leaves. 

In  considering  specific  objections  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  moral  superiority  of  the  Jewish  theocracy 
over  other  ancient  governments  should  never  be  ob- 
scured, as  it  suggests  God's  own  leadership  and  deepens 
the  conviction  that  the  sacred  record  is  trustworthy, 
whether  its  offensive  features  can  be  adequately 
accounted  for  or  not.  Professor  Goldwin  Smith,  writ- 
ing in  defense  of  Old  Testament  legislation,  defines  it 
as  "a  code  of  laws,  the  beneficence  of  which  is  equally 
unapproachcd  by  any  code,  and  least  of  all  by  any 
Oriental  code,  not  produced  under  the  influence  of 
Christianity." 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  code  never  introduces 
any  barbarous  institution  or  custom,  never  originates 
a  ferocious,  cruel,  or  degrading  practice,  but  is  ever 
directed    toward    the   mitigation,  the   reformation,  and 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  28/ 

the  ultimate  suppression  of  existing  evils  and  vices. 
Just  as  high  license  does  not  introduce  the  sale  of 
liquor  in  a  community,  but  is  a  restrictive  measure 
looking  in  the  direction  of  prohibition,  and  as  the  laws 
regulating  American  slavery  did  not  domesticate  that 
fearful  system  in  the  country,  but  were  intended  to 
restrain  and  ameliorate  and  prepare  the  way  for  total 
abolition,  so  the  Mosaic  legislation  met  the  people  on 
their  rude,  uncivilized  level,  and  adapted  itself  to  their 
actual  conditions,  not  for  the  purpose  of  leaving  them 
in  it  or  confirming  them  in  it,  but  that  they  might  be 
gradually  educated  out  of  it  and  be  brought  to  a  higher 
and  permanent  plane  of  thought,  feeling,  and  action. 
This  is  illustrated  by  the  provisions  enacted  to  protect 
the  man-slayer  from  the  over-hasty  violence  of  the 
avenger  of  blood.  A  wild  kind  of  lynch-law  justice 
prevailed  in  the  East  among  native  tribes,  to  which 
many  innocent  persons  fell  victims  and  which  resulted 
in  long  and  bitter  feuds,  disastrous  alike  to  industry 
and  to  the  juridical  majesty  of  the  State.  Judaism 
grappled  with  this  evil  and  ordained  that  the  avenger 
must  not  lay  violent  hands  on  any  homicide  other  than 
a  willful  murderer,  forbade  money  compensation  for 
blood,  condemned  everything  like  the  vendetta,  and 
appointed  cities  of  refuge  as  asylums  for  the  suspected. 
The  regulations  did  not  provide  a  shelter  for  the  assas- 
sin. Such  a  one  could  be  torn  from  the  altar ;  but  in 
all  other  cases,  the  man  pursued  by  his  enemy  found 
the  right  of  asylum  inviolate.  Thus  the  passions  of 
the  people  were  restrained,  their  fury  moderated,  while 
they  were  being  taught  more  and  more  to  respect  the 
authority  of  law  and  of  judicial  courts.     Ultimately,  as 


288      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

was  planned  from  the  outset,  private  vengeance  was 
suppressed,  and  the  accused  man-slayer  was  dealt  with 
legally  by  the  public  tribunals. 

The  same  humane  sentiment  is  conspicuous  in  the 
Mosaic  enactments  regarding  slavery,  and  the  same  evi- 
dent intent  to  effect  a  final  deliverance  from  the  curse. 
Rabbi  Mendes  grows  indignant  at  Colonel  Ingersoll's 
statements  on  this  subject  in  the  ''North  American  Re- 
view," and  tells  him  that  Jehovah  did  not  establish  sla- 
very and  that  the  command  not  to  steal  had  special  ref- 
erence to  the  theft  of  human  beings.  (See  Exod.  2 1  : 
1 6.)  He  reminds  him  that  the  institution  existed  every- 
where in  the  times  of  Israel's  deliverance  from  Egypt, 
and  that  the  statutes  relating  to  it  were  designed  to 
ameliorate  and  mitigate  what  could  not  very  well  be 
summarily  abrogated.  But,  in  addition  to  this,  he 
might  have  recalled  these  facts :  That  slavery  under 
the  patriarchs  was  a  very  mild  type  of  domestic  servi- 
tude, somewhat  resembling  the  feudal  vassalage  of  a 
later  period  ;  that  in  the  Hebrew  commonwealth,  bon- 
dage might  be  incurred  by  a  Jew  as  a  penalty  for 
theft  or  on  account  of  poverty,  but  could  not  be 
perpetuated  and  was  terminable  by  the  liquidation  of 
just  claims  against  him  or  by  the  return  of  the  year 
of  jubilee;  that  masters  were  not  to  treat  such  as 
bond-servants  but  as  hired  servants,  were  not  to  rule 
over  them  with  rigor,  and  were  not  to  let  them  go  away 
empty  when  their  term  of  subjection  was  completed  ; 
and  that,  even  in  the  case  of  slaves  drawn  from  heathen 
populations,  the  law  of  kindness  prevailed — they  could 
no  more  be  murdered  with  impunity  than  a  freeman  ; 
they  could  not  be  seriously  maltreated  or  injured  with- 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  289 

out  regaining  their  liberty  as  a  compensation  ;  they  were 
to  enjoy  one  day's  rest  in  seven,  were  permitted  to  share 
with  the  family  in  religious  worship,  were  never  exposed 
in  a  slave  market,  were  not  terrorized  by  a  ''  fugitive 
slave  law,"  and  neither  were  women  made  captives  in 
war,  who  were  received  by  their  masters  as  wives,  to  be 
sold  afterward  for  money  or  to  be  dealt  with  as  mer- 
chandise (Deut.  21  :  10-14). 

These  precepts  and  provisions  reveal  a  growing  appre- 
ciation of  the  sacredness  of  human  nature  and  of  the 
inalienableness  of  human  rights.  No  other  nation  of 
antiquity  shared  in  these  sentiments.  They  were  foreign 
to  the  genius  of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  and  even  of  Greece 
and  Rome.  To  have  immediately  abrogated  slavery  in 
those  early  days  would  possibly  have  led  to  less  tolera- 
ble forms  of  punishment  to  restrain  idleness  and  dis- 
honesty, and  would  have  exposed  aliens  captured  in 
battle  to  a  more  dreadful  fate  from  the  unbridled  fe- 
rocity of  the  conqueror.  The  policy,  so  to  speak,  was 
adopted  by  which  the  evils  of  the  institution  could  be 
reduced  to  the  minimum,  recognizing  throughout  the 
natural  equality  of  man  as  man,  and  preparing  the  way  for 
the  spirit  of  fraternity  developed  by  Christianity,  which 
has  finally  put  an  end  to  slavery  and  serfdom  wherever 
the  Saviour's  name  is  loved  and  honored. 

Just  as  we  find  in  the  Old  Testament  a  steady  growth 
and  expansion  of  view  favorable  to  human  liberty,  so  do 
we  there  also  find  a  process  of  development  conducive 
to  the  sanctity  of  the  family.  Much  fault  is  found  with 
the  Bible,  even  by  those  who  believe  in  our  times  that 
**  husband  and  wife  should  not  be  compelled  to  live  to- 
gether when  love  is  dead,"  because  of  the  instances  of 

T 


2C)0      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

polygamy  therein  presented,  and  because  of  the  arbi- 
trary power  of  the  husband  therein  countenanced.  On 
this  latter  point,  Colonel  Ingersoll  writes  heroically : 
"  God  did  not  tell  the  husband  to  reason  with  his  wife ; 
she  was  to  be  answered  only  with  death  ;  she  was  to  be 
bruised  and  mangled  to  a  bleeding,  shapeless  mass  of 
quivering  flesh  for  having  breathed  an  honest  thought." 
The  Rabbi  Mendes  answered  our  brilliant  agnostic  by 
reminding  him  that  the  authority  thus  rhetorically 
described  could  not  be  exercised  apart  from  ''the  stately 
and  merciful  course  of  judicial  procedure  which  obtained 
among  the  Hebrews,"  that  it  was  wholly  "  minatory  and 
preventive,"  that  there  is  no  instance  in  Jewish  annals 
of  its  being  displayed,  and  that  it  was  designed  to 
check  every  movement  in  the  direction  of  idolatry, 
which  carried  in  its  train  human  sacrifices,  child-burn- 
ing, and  bestiality  (Lev.  i8  :  21,  22,  24  ;  20  :  23  ;  18  : 
25,  28;  Numb.  25  :  i).  We  must  admit,  notwithstand- 
ing the  rabbi's  defense  of  one  aspect  of  the  subject, 
that,  taken  as  a  whole,  there  are  evils  connected  with 
the  relation  of  the  sexes  apparently  condoned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  which  are  hard  to  reconcile  with  Chris- 
tian ideas  of  the  sanctity  of  marriage.  Yet  we  should 
never  forget  that  these  ideas  sprang  from  the  teachings 
of  the  very  Book  that  occasions  this  repulsion,  and  that, 
after  all,  the  fault  may  lie  rather  in  our  inability  to  in- 
terpret than  in  any  intentional  approval  of  immorality. 
We  all  know^ — and  if  we  need  information,  we  can 
obtain  it  from  Herbert  Spencer's  "  Synthetic  Philoso- 
phy" — that  the  primitive  relations  of  the  sexes  were  of 
the  freest  and  loosest  kind,  promiscuity,  exogamy,  poly- 
andry, or  polygamy.      Later  on,  as  civilization  advanced 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  29I 

and  the  family  came  to  be  recognized,  we  find  a  facility 
of  divorce  and  a  toleration  of  indulgence  fatally  de- 
structive of  its  integrity.  According  to  Frederick  R. 
Coudert, 

Juvenal  speaks  of  a  lady  who  had  married  eight  husbands  in 
the  course  of  five  years.  Martial  mentions  a  matron  who  had 
taken  ten  husbands  in  one  month.  .  .  Jerome  speaks  of  a  husband 
who  had  been  widowed  twenty  times  ;  the  twenty-first  lady  whom 
he  selected  as  his  companion  had  had  twenty-two  husbands. 

If  this  was  the  state  of  society  under  the  Caesars, 
what  must  its  condition  have  been  in  the  earlier  times 
of  the  patriarchs  ?  and  if  lawless  passion  could  prove  so 
intractable  after  many  centuries  of  history  and  is  to-day 
so  difficult  to  restrain,  what  must  have  been  its  wayward 
power  at  the  beginning  ?  To  evolve  the  family  out  of 
the  disorders  that  afflicted  the  first  ages  of  the  world 
was  no  easy  task.  Some  evils  must  be  allowed  that 
others  may  be  corrected  and  that  a  fair  idea  of  the  home 
may  be  developed.  Polygamy,  the  common  sin,  is  borne 
with  and  countenanced  by  Jewish  legislation  ;  and  yet 
there  are  not  lacking  signs  of  an  ulterior  purpose.  The 
dignity  of  Hebrew  women  was  guarded  as  in  no  other 
Oriental  nation.  Adultery  and  the  coveting  of  a  neigh- 
bor's wife  or  maid-servant  were  prohibited.  Outrages 
committed  on  females  were  condemned  and  punished, 
and  the  glory  of  a  true  wife  was  extolled  in  language 
that  has  never  been  surpassed  in  vividness  and  beauty. 
That  picture  of  domestic  virtue  and  devotion  portrayed 
in  the  last  chapter  of  Proverbs  is  a  fairer  exponent  of 
the  Bible's  conception  of  marriage  than  any  of  the  per- 
plexing regulations  that  have  come  down  to  us,  and  in- 


292      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

dicates  the  supreme  end  God  had  in  view  through  all 
his  varied  dealings  with  the  household.  Consider  these 
regulations  as  measures  provisionally  adopted  on  account 
of  the  ''hardness  of  the  heart,"  to  effect  deliverance 
from  graver  evils  than  those  which  are  apparently  up- 
held, and  that  the  world  might  be  brought  to  appreciate 
the  home  as  described  by  Solomon,  and  many  a  hard 
thought  against  God  will  be  abandoned  and  many  an 
unworthy  suspicion  will  be  discarded. 

A  few  words  must  be  added  relative  to  the  disclosure 
of  the  divine  nature  and  attributes.  Progress  is  as 
marked  here  as  in  the  evolution  of  legislation  and 
morals.  Ewald  recognizes  five  names  given  to  the  Su- 
preme Being  in  the  Old  Testament,  corresponding  to 
five  distinct  historic  epochs.  To  the  patriarchal  age  he 
is  simply  the  Almighty  ;  to  the  covenant  dispensation 
he  is  Jehovah  ;  to  the  monarchy  the  Lord  of  Hosts ; 
to  the  prophetic  era  he  is  the  Holy  One ;  to  the  Juda- 
ism preceding  Christ's  advent  he  is  Our  Lord  ;  and  to 
the  Christian  world  he  is  Father,  a  name  that  exhausts 
the  meaning  of  all  the  others.  Ewald's  scheme,  to  me, 
is  a  trifle  fanciful ;  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  suc- 
cession of  names  adds  increasing  clearness  to  the  Divine 
revelation  of  himself.  We  move  steadily  along  from  the 
idea  of  absolute  power  to  self-existence,  and  then  to 
leadership  and  supremacy,  and  after  that  to  purity,  per- 
fection, and  sovereign  authority.  His  names  are  all-illu- 
minating and  descriptive,  and  with  the  blending  of  them 
all  in  the  last  their  crown  and  glory,  we  have  the  thought 
of  measureless  love,  benignancy,  and  compassion.  But 
while  this  slow  unfolding  of  the  Creator  is  apparent,  we 
must  be  careful  not  to  conclude  that  intimations  were 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITlCiSM  293 

never  given  in  advance  of  excellencies  whose  completed 
beauty  could  only  be  adequately  displayed  later  on. 
Each  step  in  the  process  was  in  some  degree  prophetic 
of  every  succeeding  step.  Mingling  with  the  primitive 
disclosures  of  God's  nature  are  straggling  rays  of  light, 
faint  gleams  of  something  further,  something  better  and 
more  wondrous. 

For  my  meaning  recall  a  few  passages  selected  from 
the  Pentateuch.  In  Exodus  God  says:  "I  will  make  all 
my  goodness  pass  before  thee,  and  I  will  proclaim  the 
name  of  the  Lord  before  thee,  and  wdll  be  gracious  to 
whom  I  will  be  gracious,  and  will  shew  mercy  on  whom 
I  will  shew  mercy."  Then,  "The  Lord  passed  by  be- 
fore him  and  proclaimed.  The  Lord,  The  Lord  God, 
merciful  and  gracious,  longsuffering  and  abundant  in 
goodness  and  truth,  keeping  mercy  for  thousands,  for- 
giving iniquity  and  transgression  and  sin."  Similar  is 
the  assurance  in  Deuteronomy  :  "  For  the  Lord  thy  God 
is  a  merciful  God,  he  will  not  forsake  thee,  neither  de- 
stroy thee";  ''Then  the  Lord  thy  God  will  turn  thy  cap- 
tivity, and  have  compassion  upon  thee  and  will  return 
and  gather  thee  from  all  the  nations  whither  the  Lord 
thy  God  hath  scattered  thee."  Touching  his  conde- 
scension we  have  the  declaration:  "And  he  said.  Be- 
hold, the  Lord  our  God  hath  showed  us  his  glory,  and 
his  greatness,  and  we  have  heard  his  voice  out  of  the 
midst  of  the  fire  ;  w^e  have  seen  this  day  that  God  doth 
talk  with  man  and  he  liveth."  When  we  come  to  the 
prophetical  books  these  representations  become  more 
spiritual  and  more  encouraging  to  his  people.  They 
indeed  stop  short  of  the  New  Testament  revelation,  but 
they  are  full  of  moral  majesty  and  beauty.    The  psalmist 


294      ClIKISTIAMTV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

sings :  ''lie  that  dwelleth  in  the  secret  place  of  the  Most 
High  shall  abide  under  the  shadow  of  the  Almighty.  I 
will  say  of  the  Lord,  He  is  my  refuge  and  my  fortress, 
my  God  ;  in  him  will  I  trust  " ;  and  Isaiah,  speaking  for 
him,  adds  :  "  When  thou  passest  through  the  waters  I 
will  be  with  thee  ;  and  through  the  rivers  they  shall  not 
overflow  thee ;  when  thou  walkest  through  the  fire  thou 
shalt  not  be  burned  ;  neither  shall  the  flame  kindle  upon 
thee"  ;  "The  meek  also  shall  increase  their  joy  in  the 
Lord,  and  the  poor  among  men  shall  rejoice  in  the  Holy 
One  of  Israel.  But  when  he  seeth  his  children,  the  work 
of  mine  hands,  in  the  midst  of  him,  they  shall  sanctify 
my  name,  and  sanctify  the  Holy  One  of  Jacob,  and  shall 
fear  the  God  of  Israel." 

A  small  volume  could  easily  be  filled  with  citations 
of  this  sort  gathered  from  the  Old  Testament,  proving 
that  while  his  spiritual  grandeur  gradually  became  full- 
orbed,  there  never  was  a  time  when  some  rays  of  it  did 
not  burst  through  the  darkness  to  lighten  man's  way 
on  earth. 

The  Jews,  when  they  appear  in  history,  display  un- 
mistakable tendencies  toward  idolatry,  and  show  only 
too  positively  that  they  have  been  infected  with  the 
gross,  carnal  superstitions  of  the  East.  To  deliver  them 
from  these  corrupting  and  debasing  ideas  was  no  easy 
task.  This  every  preacher  knows  who  has  had  dealings 
with  men  in  this  age  of  Christian  enlightenment.  Even 
now  it  seems  natural  for  them  to  believe  unworthy 
things  of  God  ;  to  stumble  and  grope  as  if  in  the  night, 
and  to  think  of  him  as  though  he  were  altogether  like 
one  of  themselves.  What  then  must  have  been  the  ob- 
stacles in  the  way  of  a  primitive  race,  overshadowed  by 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  295 

the  horrible  religions  of  its  gorgeous  but  semi-civilized 
contemporaries,  rising  to  anything  like  a  true  concep- 
tion of  the  one  ever-living  God !  The  process  of  educa- 
tion must  have  been  slow  and  difficult,  human  weakness 
must  often  have  defeated  divine  graciousness,  and  meas- 
ures must  have  been  taken  to  remove  their  blindness 
which  at  this  late  day  are  hard  to  understand.  But 
judged  by  the  result,  the  method  was  wise,  for  the  world 
is  now  blest  with  an  image  of  the  Almighty  which  is  at 
once  glorious  in  justice  and  in  love.  Judged  by  what 
has  been  accomplished,  gratitude  should  take  the  place 
of  alarm  ;  for  criticism,  dreaded  at  the  outset  and  some- 
times giving  occasion  for  apprehension,  has  really  forged 
the  best  weapon  for  the  defense  of  the  Bible  against  its 
infidel  adversaries. 

Thus  has  the  modern  spirit  of  research  unfolded  the 
method  of  inspiration,  as  it  has  also  elucidated  its  nature 
and  furnished  the  best  test  of  its  genuineness.  It  yet 
remains  to  be  noted  that  this  spirit  has  accomplished  a 
final  good  in  bringing  out  distinctly  the  supreme  aim 
and  crowning  glory  of  inspiration  ;  that  is,  we  are  in- 
debted to  it  for  an  idea,  a  criterion,  a  method,  and  a 
sufficient  end.  And  what  may  this  end  he?  "Jesus 
Christ,  the  same  yesterday,  to-day,  and  forever."  As  a 
result  of  our  critical  inquiries.  Doctor  Fairbairn  claims 
that  we  have  rediscovered  the  historic  Christ.  This  has 
been  done,  not  by  the  recovery  of  lost  manuscripts,  but 
by  removing  from  the  original  portrait  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament the  accumulated  traditions,  fictions,  and  super- 
stitious glosses,  which,  like  layers  of  ancient  dust,  have 
sadly  obscured  the  fair  lineaments  of  his  face.  It  fol- 
lows that  we  who  live  on  the  threshold  of  a  new  century 


296      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

have  a  more  faithful  picture  of  Jesus  than  was  possessed 
by  the  world  a  hundred  years  ago.  We  have  more 
accurate  knowledge  of  his  person  and  a  more  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  details  of  his  life  than  were  avail- 
able to  many  of  the  generations  which  have  preceded 
our  own.  As  he  has  been  brought  more  and  more  to 
light,  and  as  he  has  emerged  more  and  more  from  the 
shadow  of  ecclesiasticism,  it  has  been  made  more  mani- 
fest that  in  him  are  concentrated  the  special  revelations 
of  inspiration,  and  that  he  himself  is  their  substance  and 
their  theme.  About  him  and  for  him  the  Bible  seems 
to  have  been  written.  Ritschl  was  so  profoundly  im- 
pressed by  this  thought  that  he  and  Vatke,  Biedermann 
and  Zeller,  with  greater  or  lesser  identity  of  exposition, 
insisted  on  the  sole  revelation-value  of  Christ.  That  is, 
they  have  advocated  what  is  called  the  Ritschlian  prin- 
ciple of  a  personal  and  only  a  personal  revelation  of 
God  and  of  archetypal  man  in  relation  to  God,  by  which 
the  Scriptures  are  emptied  of  much  of  their  significance 
and  become  a  telescope  through  which  a  view  of  the 
personal  revelation  may  be  obtained. 

The  purpose  of  this  theory  is  to  ally  the  living  soul 
of  man  with  the  living  Christ  and  to  lay  the  foundation 
for  the  subjectivity  which  is  a  prominent  feature  of 
Ritschl's  theology.^  But  it  is  not  necessary  that  this 
extreme  position  be  occupied  for  us  to  see  clearly,  what 
investigation  has  rendered  transparently  plain,  that  the 
Bible  is  full  of  Christ  and  that  it  is  supremely  con- 
cerned with  his  person,  his  mission,  his  sacrifice,  and 
his  undying  life,  thus  opening  the  way  for  the  direct 
communion  of  humanity  with  his   Spirit.     Athanasius 

^  "  Unterric/ii,''  p.  2  ;   "•  Leben,'"  Vol.  II.,  p.  279. 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  297 

used  to  teach  that  the  Angel  of  Jehovah,  whose  appear- 
ances are  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  none 
other  than  the  Second  Person  in  the  Trinity,  in  support 
of  which  view  Jehovah's  own  words  have  frequently 
been  quoted  :  ''  Behold,  I  send  an  Angel  before  thee,  to 
keep  thee  in  the  way.  .  .  Beware  of  him,  and  obey  his 
voice,  provoke  him  not  ;  for  he  will  not  pardon  your 
transgressions:  for  my  name  is  in  him."  There  are 
numberless  instances  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  where 
his  advent  is  heralded,  his  preaching  anticipated,  and 
his  suffering  death  foretold.  Without  him  the  Old 
Testament  is  a  sealed  book  and  has  no  particular  claim 
on  the  attention  of  the  Gentile  world.  That,  as  St. 
John  declares,  '*  the  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the  spirit  of 
prophecy,"  is  confirmed  by  Christ  himself  when  he  says  : 
"  Search  the  Scriptures  .  .  .  for  they  are  they  that 
testify  of  me."  He  claims  that  the  law  is  fulfilled' in 
him  ;  that  he  is  the  perfect  flower  of  its  germinal  life 
and  the  complete  archetype  of  all  its  types.  Thinking 
of  the  promised  disclosures  of  God,  he  calmly  says. 
They  who  had  seen  him  had  seen  the  Father,  and 
the  letters  addressed  to  the  Hebrews,  Ephesians,  and 
others,  are  but  commentaries  on  his  own  profound  and 
precious  sayings.  This  was  recognized  by  Luther,  and 
hence  the  test  of  apostolicity  that  he  applied  to  the 
sacred  books ;  and  it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  in  the 
person  of  Jesus,  and  in  his  teachings  as  given  in  the 
Gospels  and  expanded  and  expounded  in  the  Epistles, 
we  have  all  knowledge  necessary  for  life  and  salvation. 
Michelet  confesses  that  this  is  a  just  view  to  take  of 
our  Lord's  ministry,  while  he  condemns  what  it  involves 
and  discards  what  it  implies.      He  writes  :  "  But  what  to 


298      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

love  ?  What  to  believe  ?  About  that  there  was  no  pre- 
cise formula.  To  love  the  teacher  and  to  believe  on 
the  teacher.  To  take  his  very  person,  a  living  creed, 
for  a  symbol  and  a  creed,  lliis  is  the  very  accurate 
meaning  of  all  that  Paul  has  written  and  which  has 
been  marvelously  well  stated  in  this  sentence,  '  Jesus 
taught  nothing  but  himself.'  "  The  sentence  quoted  is 
from  Renan,  and  it  is  singular  that  these  brilliant  and 
skeptical  Frenchmen  should  so  clearly  perceive  what 
many  schoolmen  and  dogmatists  have  overlooked,  that 
Jesus  himself  is  the  "■  Bible  of  Humanity." 

Luthardt,  the  eminent  German  theologian,  says  :  '*  He 
makes  himself  the  central  point  of  his  every  announce- 
ment. 'It  is  I,'  is  the  great  text  of  all  his  teaching. 
'  If  ye  believe  not  that  I  am  he  ye  shall  die  in  your  sins,' 
is,  in  fact,  a  saying  in  which  his  whole  doctrine  may  be 
summed  up."  Were  this  realized  as  it  should  be,  many 
of  the  objections  brought  against  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments would  disappear  like  mist  and  darkness  before 
the  presence  of  the  sun.  In  him  earth  and  heaven 
meet,  and  God  himself,  received  into  his  humanity,  is 
reflected  on  the  world.  He  localizes,  in  his  person, 
omnipotence  ;  he  concentrates,  within  finite  limits,  the 
infinitude,  and  focuses  in  his  own  life  the  moral  splendor 
of  the  Everlasting  One.  In  condescension  to  our  in- 
firmities, the  Formless  has  taken  form,  and  that  he 
might  be  with  men  and  be  of  them,  he  was  wombed  in 
humanity,  incarnated,  and  born  into  the  world.  The 
exile  prophet  by  the  river  Chebar  beheld  above  the 
firmament  of  gleaming,  glowing  crystal,  and  above  the 
majestic  manifold  wheels  and  "the  all-pervading  and 
enfolding  fire,"  ''the  likeness  of  a  throne  as  the  appear- 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  299 

ance  of  a  sapphire  stone,  and  upon  the  hkeness  of  the 
throne  the  likeness  as  the  appearance  of  a  man  "  ;  and 
we  now,  from  our  land  of  exile,  discern  upon  the  throne 
that  rises  above  the  mystic  sea  of  glass  and  above  the 
ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand  that  minister  to  his 
glory,  "the  appearance  of  a  man,"  even  of  him  to  whom, 
in  the  fullness  of  time,  it  was  said,  "  Sit  ye  at  my  right 
hand  until  I  make  thine  enemies  thy  footstool." 

Thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that  the  manhood  of  Christ 
has  been  made  indispensable  to  the  revelation  of  the 
godhood  of  God.  Nor  is  this  merely  the  thought  of 
devout  Christian  enthusiasm,  for  even  theists,  who  see 
in  Jesus  only  an  extraordinary  human  personage,  when 
speaking  of  the  Supreme  Being,  in  whom  they  profess 
to  believe,  at  best  but  reproduce  the  character  of  him 
whose  creaturehood  they  so  persistently  afihrm.  Their 
definitions  of  God  are  supplied  by  him,  their  vocabulary 
of  his  attributes  is  made  up  from  his  discourses,  and 
their  ideas  of  justice,  truth,  mercy,  that  sound  so  sweet, 
were  originally  his,  not  only  in  words  but  in  actions  as 
w^ell.  Whatever  may  be  said  in  the  heat  of  debate  re- 
garding his  rank  in  the  universe,  "reverential  calm" 
always  deepens  the  impression  that  no  grander  and 
truer  conception  of  God  has  ever  dawned  on  human 
thought  than  shone  in  the  life  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  nor 
has  any  sublimer  and  more  rational  presentation  of  duty, 
of  the  ideal  that  should  govern  man  in  all  the  relations 
he  sustains,  been  made  to  the  world  than  he  declared 
and  illustrated  in  his  brief  career.  He  "  squares  to 
rule  the  instincts  of  the  soul,"  he  gives  the  clew  that 
leads  through  the  whole  labyrinth  of  obligation,  and 
shows   that  all  its  paths  unite  at  one  center,  and  that 


300      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

center  love.  The  ebb  and  flow  of  feeling,  the  shallow 
and  deep  waves  of  emotion,  he  explains,  prescribe  their 
boundaries  and  direct  their  currents.  He  is  the  mold 
into  which  society  and  the  individual  can  with  safety 
flow,  assured  that  the  impression  they  receive  will  accord 
with  the  everlasting  rule  of  right  and  will  contribute  to 
their  highest  good.  Everywhere  his  ethics  are  recog- 
nized as  the  truest  standard  of  worthy  and  noble  con- 
duct. They  are  commended  by  all,  they  are  extolled 
even  by  those  persons  who  never  transmute  them  into 
deeds.  The  final  appeal  of  the  vexed  conscience  is  car- 
ried to  his  tribunal  and  the  perplexing  scruples  of  the 
sensitive  are  laid  at  his  feet.  He  is  the  ultimate  rule 
of  practice,  acknowledged  without  controversy,  and  no 
theories  of  inspiration  can  add  to  or  take  from  the 
authority  and  splendor  of  his  example. 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  his  "  History  of  Painting," 
when  writing  on  the  two  styles, — the  grand  and  the 
ornamental, — discriminates  between  them  by  saying  that 
the  "  grand  "  does  not  admit  of  any  addition  from  infe- 
rior sources,  while  the  ''  ornamental "  derives  material 
for  embellishment  from  almost  every  quarter.  He  then 
adds  that  *'  Correggio  succeeded  in  the  perilous  attempt 
of  blending  the  two."  But  our  Lord  transcended  the 
feat  of  the  artist.  He  has  brought  together  the  divine 
and  the  human  ;  the  Infinitely  Grand,  to  which  nothing 
can  be  added,  and  the  tawdry,  showy  finite,  that  seeks 
continually  new  adornment  from  perishable  honors,  and 
he  has  so  blended  the  two  in  himself  and  in  the  sacred 
books,  that  the  touch  of  the  divine  transforms  the  hu- 
man and  the  transformation  of  the  human  humanizes 
the  divine. 


THE    BIBLE    AND    CRITICISM  3OI 

Thus  he  is  the  sun,  the  glory,  the  essence,  and  the 
consummation  of  revelation  ;  he  is  its  foundation  and 
superstructure,  its  center  and  circumference,  its  source 
and  its  stream,  its  root  and  its  flower  ;  and,  having  him, 
we  have  everything,  and  all  that  the  preacher  can  do  is 
to  interpret  him  as  best  he  can  and  to  persuade  man- 
kind to  seek  in  him  the  fullness  of  life  and  blessedness. 

In  estimating,  then,  the  bearing  of  recent  research  on 
inspiration,  I  am  of  those  who  regard  it  as  distinctly 
advantageous.  That  it  has  occasionally  been  presumptu- 
ous, extravagant  in  its  assertions,  and  supercilious  in  its 
criticisms,  having  as  frequently  to  retract  its  opinions  as 
theologians  to  modify  their  doctrines,  no  person  with 
adequate  knowledge  will  controvert.  But  I  have  never 
been  able  to  work  myself  into  the  hysteria  of  fear  on 
that  account.  To  me  there  is  only  one  calamity  more 
terrible  and  overwhelming  than  attacks  on  the  Bible, 
and  that  is  deliberately  to  cherish  a  Bible  incapable  of 
withstanding  these  attacks.  The  pangs  and  pains  in- 
volved in  being  delivered  from  error  are  as  nothing 
compared  with  the  sure  moral  death  which  must  always 
accompany  the  impossibility  of  bringing  to  the  birth. 
I  am  content,  then,  that  careful  inquiry  can  do  no  harm, 
and,  if  it  is  not  careful,  the  harm  will  come  to  him  who 
is  reckless  and  not  to  the  Bible.  Luthardt  has  lately 
published  his  confession  of  faith,  in  which  he  makes 
this  touching  appeal : 

One  thing  we  ask  of  the  critics  is,  that  they  leave  the  holy  his- 
tory as  holy  history  and  not  as  profane.  Another  thing  we  ask  is, 
let  it  be  not  prophets  and  law,  but  law  and  prophets,  the  natural 
order  as  confirmed  by  Christ  and  by  Paul.  The  last  thing  we  ask 
is,  do  not  treat  the  religion  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  develop- 


302      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ment  from  natural  religion,  for,  according  to  the  law  of  logic, 
nothing  appears  in  the  effect  that  was  not  included  in  the  cause. 
Salvation  in  Christ  is  not  a  supernatural  gift  unless  its  beginnings 
are  divine.^ 

Such  an  appeal,  however,  is  misleading.  Let  us 
merely  entreat  critics  and  every  one  else  to  tell  us  the 
truth.  Nothing  is  holy  that  is  not  true,  and  no  history 
is  really  profane  and  some  other  kind  sacred,  for  God  is 
working  through  all  to  accomplish  the  high  purposes  of 
his  grace.  What  makes  the  murder  of  Uriah  sacred 
history  and  Abraham  Lincoln  signing  the  emancipation 
proclamation  profane  history.^  These  contrasts  at  a 
glance  illustrate  the  indefensibleness  of  the  distinction. 
We  ask  no  favors.  Let  the  spirit  of  research  march 
on.  The  more  she  marches,  I  am  persuaded,  the  more 
fully  will  she  confirm  the  credentials  of  Holy  Writ  and 
the  more  heartily  approve  and  commend  the  wise  saying 
of  Herder  :  "  In  order  to  be  assisted,  the  revelation  of 
God  as  found  in  the  Bible,  and  even  the  entire  history 
of  the  human  race,  must  be  believed,  and  thus  ever 
return  to  the  great  center  about  which  everything  re- 
volves and  clusters — Jesus  Christ,  the  corner-stone  and 
inheritance,  the  greatest  messenger,  teacher,  and  person 
of  the  archetype." 

^  Rev.  W.  \V.  Everts'  translation  in  "The  Standard,"  Dec.  14,  1899. 


VII 
THE  REGENERATION  AND    DEVELOPMENT 


Strong  Son  of  God,  immortal  Love, 

Whom  we,  that  have  not  seen  thy  face, 
By  faith,  and  faith  alone,  embrace, 

Believing  where  we  cannot  prove  ; 

Our  little  systems  have  their  day  ; 

They  have  their  day  and  cease  to  be  ; 

They  are  but  broken  lights  of  thee, 
And  thou,  O  Lord,  art  more  than  they. 

We  have  but  faith,  we  cannot  know  ; 

For  knowledge  is  of  things  we  see  ; 

And  yet  we  trust  it  comes  from  thee, 
A  beam  in  darkness  :  let  it  grow. 

—  Tennyson. 


VII 


THE    EMANCIPATION  AND   TRANSFORMATION    OF  EVANGEL- 
ICAL   THEOLOGY 

The  enlightened  Protestant  principle  is  admirably  ex- 
pressed in  the  words  of  Wegscheider,^  the  quotation  of 
which  may  be  taken  as  indicating  the  spirit  and  scope 
of  the  present  discussion  : 

In  the  interpretation  and  criticism  of  the  opinions  and  doctrines 
of  early  times,  theologians  ought  to  take  greatest  care  to  combine 
the  use  of  sound  reason  with  the  results  of  the  learning  of  so  many 
centuries.  Then  only  will  they  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  the 
great  reformers,  who,  in  their  noble  struggle  against  so  many  in- 
jurious errors,  never  claimed  themselves  to  have  made  an  end  of 
all  inquiry,  and  never  grudged  to  their  successors  progress  in  re- 
ligious knowledge.  The  teachers  of  the  church  ought  particularly 
to  endeavor  to  communicate  to  the  people  the  teaching  of  Christ 
and  his  apostles  regarding  God  and  duty  in  all  its  purity  ;  to  show- 
that  the  truth  of  this  teaching  does  not  depend  on  ancient  dog- 
matic formulas  and  pedantic  interpretations  of  biblical  passages, 
but  is  borne  out  by  the  properly  developed  nature  of  our  own 
mind  ;  to  no  longer  try  to  defend  forms  of  doctrine  which  were 
adapted  only  for  the  thought  of  certain  people  and  times,  but 
gradually  to  lay  them  aside  and  adopt  a  simple  form  of  teaching, 
such  as  is  indicated  in  the  New  Testament  itself ;  to  permit  the 
sparks  of  true  morality  and  piety  to  flash  from  the  light  of  genuine 
Christian  doctrine,  instead  of  offering  the  smoke  of  ancient  opin- 
ions as  the  light  of  knowledge.^ 

From  this  statement  we  learn  that  the  eminent  Ger- 

1  Preface,  '■'■  Institiitiones  Thcologicv.^'' 
2  Pfleiderer,  "Development  of  Theology,"  p.  96. 

U  305 


306      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

man  does  not  regard  dogma  as  a  fixed  and  changeless 
quantity,  a  conviction  which  is  shared  by  a  more  recent 
writer,  the  eminent  Frenchman,  Sabatier.      He  says  : 

In  Catholicism  the  theory  of  the  immutabihty  of  dogmas  is  op- 
posed to  history  ;  in  Protestantism  it  is  opposed  to  logic.  In  both 
cases  the  affirmation  is  shown  to  be  illusory.  It  is  with  dogmas, 
so  long  as  they  are  alive,  as  it  is  with  all  living  things  ;  they  are 
in  a  perpetual  state  of  transformation.  They  only  become  im- 
mutable when  they  are  dead,  and  they  begin  to  die  when  they 
cease  to  be  studied,  that  is,  to  be  discussed. 

We  have  no  controversy  with  the  charnel  house,  and 
death  is  the  end  of  argument.  If,  therefore,  it  has  come 
to  pass  that  a  creed  form  arouses  no  debate  and  is  sim- 
ply ruled  out  of  the  contentions  of  living  men,  it  is  clear 
that  it  has  ceased  to  be  a  vital  thing ;  but  if  it  grows, 
and  if  in  growing  it  is  modified  and  even  revolutionized, 
we  may  know  that  it  is  not  soulless,  and  is  not  as  yet 
stricken  with  decay.  Holding  to  this  belief,  we  ought 
not  to  be  surprised  at  the  changes  wrought  in  Christian 
doctrine  during  the  nineteenth  century  ;  and  if  we  are 
disposed  at  this  late  day  to  be  intolerant  of  any  further 
departure  from  what  we  have  decided  must  be  the  teach- 
ing of  the  Bible,  we  may  recall  the  admonition  of  Crom- 
well :  ''  I  beseech  you,  brethren,  by  the  mercies  of  God, 
remember  it  is  possible  you  may  be  mistaken."  More- 
over, if  progress  has  been  impossible,  and  if  it  is  not  to 
be  expected,  how  could  learned  men,  like  Hagenbach, 
Shedd,  Dorncr,  and  Pflciderer,  have  written  as  they  have 
about  the  history  of  doctrine  and  of  its  development .'' 
The  very  titles  of  their  scholarly  volumes  suggest  un- 
mistakably that  theological  view\s  are  continually  more 
or  less  in  a  state  of  fiux,  crystallizing  here  and  there 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  307 

around  some  central  thought,  and  then  once  more 
vSweeping  onward  toward  a  more  comprehensive  and 
complete  expression  of  religious  truth. 

There  is  current  in  modern  society,  and  especially 
among  literary  people,  a  very  illogical  influence  from 
this  admitted  mutability.  Whether  it  arises  from  an 
unconfessed  indisposition  to  pursue  serious  studies,  or 
from  an  inexcusable  indifference  to  sacred  themes,  or 
from  an  undisguised  loss  of  confidence  in  the  Bible,  and 
a  growing  conviction  that  art,  music,  and  culture  must 
henceforward  take  up  its  mission,  we  shall  not  attempt 
to  determine  ;  but  there  is  undoubtedly  a  widespread  im- 
pression that  doctrinal  forms  are  unnecessary  to  religion 
and  may  even  impede  its  advancement.  As  they  are 
changing,  it  is  sometimes  argued,  they  cannot  be  indis- 
pensable, though  no  one  would  think  of  applying  this 
logic  to  other  departments  of  intellectual  activity.  We 
never  think  of  saying  that  as  the  human  body  is  never 
stationary  and  is  changing  every  three  or  seven  years, 
it  is  really  superfluous.  Neither  do  we  maintain  that 
scientific  formularies  and  definitions  may  safely  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  without  detriment  to  science,  because 
they  have  frequently  been  recast  and  have  at  times  been 
set  aside  altogether  by  new  ones.  Nor  do  we  object  to 
fresh  and  better  expositions  of  philosophy,  knowing  very 
well  that  these  revised  and  enlarged  elucidations  are  in- 
separable from  its  existence  and  influence.  It  is  only  in 
religion  that  we  seem  to  lose  our  common  sense,  and 
come  to  demand  light  without  heavenly  bodies,  waves 
without  form,  spirit  without  flesh,  music  without  nota- 
tion, and  truth  without  articulate  definition. 

And  yet  I  hesitate  not  to  say  that  a  religion  without 


308      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

a  theology  is  a  religion  without  thought ;  and  a  religion 
without  thought  has  no  special  claims  to  the  respect  of 
thinking  men.  Nowhere  have  I  found  a  clearer  or  more 
philosophical  vindication  of  this  position  than  occurs  in 
the  writings  of  Sabatier.  He  regards  dogma  as  a  ''  phe- 
nomenon of  social  life,"  and  contends  that  '*  one  cannot 
conceive  either  dogma  without  a  church,  or  a  church 
without  dogma."  Then  he  continues  in  this  way  to  dis- 
cuss the  subject : 

"  DocU-ine  necessarily  becomes  for  it  [the  church]  an  essential 
thing  ;  for  in  its  doctrine  it  expresses  its  soul,  its  mission,  its  faith. 
It  is  necessary  also  that  it  should  carry  its  doctrine  to  a  degree  at 
once  of  generality  and  precision  high  enough  to  embrace  and  to 
translate  all  the  moments  of  its  religious  experience  and  to  elim- 
inate all  alien  and  hostile  elements."  And  yet  further  :  "If  the 
life  of  a  church  be  compared  to  that  of  a  plant,  doctrine  holds  in 
it  the  place  of  the  seed.  Like  the  seed,  doctrine  is  the  last  to  be 
formed  ;  it  crowns  and  closes  the  annual  cycle  of  vegetation  ;  but 
it  is  necessary  that  it  should  form  and  ripen,  for  it  carries  within 
it  the  power  of  life  and  the  germ  of  a  new  development.  A 
church  without  dogmas  would  be  a  sterile  plant.  But  let  not  the 
partisans  of  dogmatic  immutability  triumph  ;  let  them  pursue  the 
comparison  to  the  end  :  '  Except  a  grain  of  wheat  fall  into  the 
ground  and  die,'  said  Jesus,  'it  bears  no  fruit'  To  be  fruitful, 
dogma  must  be  decomposed,  that  is  to  say,  it  must  mix  itself  un- 
ceasingly with  the  evolution  of  human  thought  and  die  in  it  ;  it  is 
the  condition  of  perpetual  resurrection."  ^ 

Well  would  it  be  for  religion  were  there  a  general  and 
hearty  recognition  of  the  soundness  of  this  exposition. 
Then  the  effusive  sentimentalism  that  decries  all  doc- 
trinal statements,  and  is  enamored  of  mist,  vagueness, 
and   subtilization  would   terminate,  and   then   teachers 


*  "Outlines  of  Philos.  of  Religion,"  Book  III.,  Dogma. 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  309 

who  veil  their  disinchnation  to  explore,  meditate,  and 
reason  beneath  this  poetic  haziness,  would  be  ashamed 
any  longer  to  boast  of  their  unwillingness  or  inability  to 
arrive  at  specific  conclusions,  and  then  all  who  believe 
that  truth  can  be  stated  and  systematized,  and  that  in 
the  nature  of  things  it  is  susceptible  of  continuous  de- 
velopment, would  be  inspirited  to  pursue  theological 
investigations,  and  to  pursue  them  earnestly  and  inde- 
pendently. 

It  has  been  more  than  once  alleged  that,  in  compar. 
ison  with  other  sciences,  theology  has  been  singularly 
conservative  and  unprogressive.^  While  in  some  re- 
spects this  representation  may  be  just,  it  may  be  so 
framed  as  to  be  on  the  whole  exceedingly  unjust.  When 
it  implies  that  theology  ought  to  have  made  physics  one 
of  its  departments,  and  that  it  ought  immediately  to 
have  accepted  the  conclusions  of  scientists,  often  at  the 
first  immature  and  liable  to  revision,  and  that  it,  and  not 
the  fears  of  ecclesiastics,  responsible  as  they  felt  them- 
selves to  be  for  the  preservation  of  church  order,  has 
been  in  the  main  arrayed  against  the  light,  a  grievous 
misapprehension  is  fostered.  I  am  not  for  a  moment 
attempting  to  conceal  the  fact  that  there  is  a  native 
something  in  theology  that  indisposes  it  to  change.  It 
is  the  science  of  sacred  things,  and  it  shrinks  from  too 
hastily  abandoning  positions  that  have  been  helpful  to 
the  spiritual  growth  of  mankind.  Moreover,  human 
opinions  are  so  flexible,  the  speculations  and  mental  va- 
garies of  the  investigator  so  various,  that  it  has  learned 
to  wait,  and  to  be  cautious  before  committing  itself  to 

^  Draper,  "Science  and  Religion"  ;  White,  "  Warfare  of  Science  with 
Theology." 


3IO      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

what  has  yet  to  be  verified.  For  instance,  Prof.  A. 
Goette,  a  Strasburg  zoologist,  has  recently  declared  that 
Darwin's  doctrine  of  pangenesis  has  never  been  adopted, 
and  that  ''natural  selection"  or  ''the  survival  of  the  fit- 
test," has  been  abandoned  by  men  like  Romanes,  Gulick, 
Nageli,  and  Eimer.  Ought  theology,  therefore,  to  be 
blamed  if  it  pauses  before  revising  its  entire  system 
in  harmony  with  views  which  experts  are  reputed  to 
have  discarded  ?  Unless  it  is  willing  to  become  merely 
the  shadow  of  every  new  hypothesis  in  physics,  it  is 
bound  to  move  slowly  and  to  deliberate  before  it  rushes 
in  where  apparently  the  scientists  themselves  fear  to 
tread.  This  necessary  hesitancy  gives  it,  I  grant,  the 
appearance  of  sluggishness  and  immobility,  but  I  am 
sure  it  has  furnished  notable  evidence  of  its  readiness 
to  accept  and  assimilate  the  latest  discoveries  in  spheres 
other  than  its  own,  when  they  have  established  their 
right  to  be  seriously  considered.  It  ought,  moreover, 
to  be  said  that  progress  in  this  department  has  to  deal 
with  an  impediment  which  does  not  exist  elsewhere, 
namely,  the  convictions,  prejudices,  and  tenderest  asso- 
ciations of  the  great  mass  of  believer.s,  who  have  neither 
time  nor  disposition  to  search  for  themselves,  and  who 
resent  the  disturbance  of  their  mental  repose,  to  which 
also  must  be  added  the  very  natural  solicitude  of  admin- 
istrators, bishops,  elders,  deacons,  stewards,  and  what 
not,  who  are  convinced  that  changes  in  thought  may 
seriously  impair  the  stability  and  activity  of  their  re- 
spective charges. 

The  theologian,  therefore,  who  is  impelled  to  depart 
from  accepted  teachings,  has  to  confront  this  solid  mass 
that  is  stirred  to  oppugnancy  by  any  suggestion  of  alter- 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  3II 

atioii  or  reform  in  the  authorized  standards  of  beUef. 
He  must  respect  the  conscientiousness  which  it  repre- 
sents, and  hence  move  with  the  most  thoughtful  care, 
and  he  must  harden  himself  to  endure  the  inevitable 
invective  and  proscription  which  his  independence  will 
entail.  These,  as  a  rule,  are  neither  slight  nor  meas- 
ured. Imagine  what  must  have  been  the  feelings  of 
Frederick  W.  Robertson,  of  Brighton,  when,  having 
struck  out  a  new  path  for  himself,  he  is  compelled  to 
write:  ''I  stand  nearly  alone,  a  theological  Ishmael. 
The  tractarians  despise  me  and  the  evangelicals  some- 
what loudly  express  their  doubts  of  me."  His  only 
comfort  was  derived  from  the  persuasion,  "  It  must  be 
right  to  do  right."  Let  us  picture  another  instance, 
and  observe  what  a  progressive  thinker  may  have  to 
suffer  from  his  colleagues  and  associates,  from  the  very 
men  whose  tastes  and  scholarship  ought  to  have  taught 
them  respectful  tolerance  and  not  bitter  recrimination. 
I  refer  to  the  celebrated  case  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hampden, 
of  Oxford,  who,  because  in  1834  he  advocated  the  ad- 
mission of  dissenters  to  the  university,  and  who  because 
in  his  Bampton  Lectures  of  two  years  before  he  had 
assailed  traditional  theology  and  had  shown  it  to  be  a 
human  compound  composed  largely  of  patristic  and 
medieval  terminology,  drew  upon  himself  the  atrabilious- 
vindictiveness  of  many  clerical  contemporaries  and  the 
splenetic  criticisms  of  Newman  and  Wilberforce.  Nor 
did  the  tempest  subside  after  its  first  outbreak.  It  was 
renewed  with  equal  virulence  in  1847,  when  Hampden 
was  made  Bishop  of  Hereford,  and  it  was  so  excessive 
that  Whately  was  constrained  to  write  of  it  in  very 
trenchant  terms.      ''There  have  been,"  he  says,  ''other 


312      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

persecutions  as  unjust  and  as  cruel  (for  burning  of 
heretics  was  happily  not  in  the  power  of  the  Hampden 
persecutors),  but  for  impudence  I  never  knew  the  like. 
The  exhibition  of  riotous  and  hostile  feeling  was  star- 
tling, even  to  those  who  had  not  anticipated  much  great- 
ness nor  goodness  from  human  nature." 

Similar  unreasoning  violence  has  been  manifested  in 
Scotland,  Germany,  and  the  United  States,  when  efforts 
have  been  made  to  emancipate  the  church  from  the 
doctrinal  trammels  of  bygone  days.  Resentment  has 
surely  been  stirred  by  departure  from  the  stereotyped 
dogmas  of  the  fathers,  and  I  have  known  members  of 
the  church  to  take  offense  at  their  pastor's  repudiation 
of  worn-out  creeds,  when  they  themselves  had  lost  all 
confidence  in  their  soundness.  Here,  then,  we  have 
plainly  disclosed  the  difficulty  that  stands  in  the  way  of 
theological  development.  Multitudes  of  Christian  peo- 
ple are  not  in  sympathy  with  it  and  not  a  few  clergymen 
share  their  hostility.  They  deceive  themselves.  Usu- 
ally they  defend  their  devotion  to  the  past  by  a  some- 
what loudly  proclaimed  love  of  truth,  whereas  the  spirit 
they  exhibit  warrants  the  suspicion  that  they  are  ani- 
mated by  a  dread  of  the  truth  ;  but  whatever  their 
motives,  I  am  not  surprised  that  their  opposition  renders 
theologians  very  careful,  and  has  gone  far  to  create  the 
impression  that  theology  is  necessarily  unprogressive 
and  is  almost  irreconcilable  with  the  wonderful  strides 
taken  in  other  departments  of  thought  and  inquiry. 

Yet  I  question  whether  there  is  any  other  that  has 
witnessed  so  great  a  revolution  as  has  taken  place, 
within  the  limits  of  a  century,  in  the  governing  and  de- 
termining conceptions  of  evangelical  religion.      Doctor 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  313 

Dorner  has  gone  so  far  as  to  call  this  transformation 
*'the  regeneration  of  theology,"  ^  and  I  have  ventured 
to  describe  it  as  an  emancipation  as  well  as  a  trans- 
formation. A  scholarly  friend  has  just  said  to  me  that, 
on  the  whole,  it  has  been  more  radical  and  wide-reaching 
than  the  substitution  of  the  Copernican  for  the  Ptole- 
maic system  of  astronomy.  To  judge  from  what  was 
taught  in  its  name  a  hundred  years  ago,  this  revision 
and  metamorphosis  came  not  an  hour  too  soon,  and,  if 
we  recall  some  of  these  teachings,  we  shall  only  be  sur- 
prised that  it  did  not  come  earlier. 

A  hundred  years  ago  it  was  common  for  divines  to 
expound  the  glorious  counsels  of  the  blessed  Trinity  in 
a  sober,  matter-of-fact  way,  and  to  refer  to  "motions  " 
and  "  resolutions  "  as  though  they  were  recording  the 
proceedings  of  a  Court  of  Arches  or  an  earthly  Presby- 
tery.^ Without  any  doubt  or  misgiving,  they  assured 
the  people  that  Deity  from  all  eternity  had  enjoyed  per- 
fect blessedness  ''  in  the  contemplation  of  his  own 
perfection,"  but  that  ''presently"  he  found  that  he 
could  get  "  an  additional  revenue  of  glory  by  creating 
rational  creatures  who  should  sing  eternal  hallelujahs." 
Then  followed  a  "  motion  "  to  this  effect,  and  eternity 
gave  place  to  a  "parenthesis  of  time."  Man  was  made 
and  the  temptation  ordained,  and  all  that  everlasting 
paeans  might  be  sung  to  God.  The  fall  was  described 
over  and  over  again  with  extraordinary  ingenuity  and 
its  deplorable  consequences  summed  up  in  language 
such  as  this  :  "  God  could  not  permit  his  image  to  abide 
near  the  ugly  effigy  of  the  Devil  "  ;  everything  done  by 


1  "  Hist.  Prot.  Theology,"  p.  424,  \'ol.  II. 
2  ^'Schema  Sacrtitn^''^  p.  217. 


314      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

an  unregenerate  man  is  "  a  mere  sham  and  dead  form  of 
holiness."  "  If  the  natural  man  should  begin  to  relent, 
to  drop  a  tear  for  sin  and  repent,  he  does  nothing  but 
sin  ;  for  man,  aye,  even  the  newborn  babe,  is  a  lump  of 
wrath,  a  child  of  hell."  *' Oh,  sad  reckoning!  as  many- 
thoughts,  words,  actions,  so  many  sins.  Thou  canst 
not  help  thyself.  What  canst  thou  do  who  art  wholly 
corrupt  .-*  Nothing  but  sin."  "  Unregenerate  morality 
can  never  please  God,  and  in  this  state  of  wrath  and 
curse  is  loathed  by  him."  ^  And  what  then  ?  Why, 
this  fallen  race,  with  the  exception  of  an  elect  seed, 
rescued  through  a  tremendous  sacrifice  which,  in  the 
language  of  that  day,  was  likened  to  a  mercantile  com- 
pensation secured  through  a  hard  bargain,  was  doomed 
to  unutterable  torments. 

In  this  theme  the  theology  of  the  time  expatiates 
with  the  most  lurid  rhetoric  and  manifestly  with  the 
keenest  relish  and  satisfaction.  "  Everything  in  God  is 
perfect  of  its  kind,"  writes  Boston,  '<  and  therefore  no 
wrath  can  be  so  perfectly  fierce  as  his  ;  the  wonted  force 
of  the  rage  of  lions,  leopards,  and  she-bears  deprived  of 
their  whelps  is  not  sufficient  to  give  a  scanty  view  of 
the  power  of  the  wrath  of  God."  Or  let  us  hear  Ralph 
Erskine  :  "  What  must  it  be  to  be  banished  from  the 
Almighty  God  .-^  But  whither  must  they  go  .-^  Into 
everlasting  fire.  Oh,  what  a  bed  is  there  !  No  feathers, 
but  fire  ;  no  friends,  but  furies  ;  no  ease,  but  fetters  ; 
no  daylight,  but  darkness  ;  no  clock  to  pass  away  the 
time,  but  endless  eternity."  ''  Shrieks  of  horror  shall 
be  heard.  What  woes  and  lamentations  shall  be  uttered 
when  devils  and  reprobate  and  all  the  damned  crew  of 

^  See  Boston's  *'  Fourfold  State  "  ;  also  Land's  "  Impartial  Testimony." 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  315 

hell  shall  be  driven  into  hell  never  to  return."  ^  And 
as  though  all  this  was  not  awful  enough,  the  doctrine 
was  done  into  meter  after  this  fashion  : 

Hot  burning  coals  of  juniper  shall  be 
Thy  bed  in  doom,  and  then  to  cover  thee 
A  quilt  of  boyling  brimstone  thou  must  take 
And  wrap  thee  in,  till  you  full  payment  make.  ^ 

These  strong  views  were,  I  admit,  presented  in  more 
studied  phrase  by  a  more  exalted  class  of  theological 
writers,  and  their  deformity  somewhat  disguised  by  a 
seeming  respect  for  philosophy  and  by  an  actual  devo- 
tion to  logic.  The  system  of  which  they  form  a  part 
has  never  been  surpassed  for  logical  cohesion  and  con- 
clusiveness. In  this  respect  it  is  a  model.  Admit  its 
first  principles  and  there  is  no  escape  from  its  terrible 
consequences.  These  I  have  reproduced  in  the  power- 
erful  speech  of  divines  whose  written  works  have  influ- 
enced millions,  that  we  might  obtain  from  their  coarse 
way  of  dealing  with  these  terrors  an  idea  of  the  revolu- 
tion that  has  taken  place  in  theology. 

Such  preaching  as  this  is  hardly  conceivable  to-day 
wherever  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  prevails.  It 
would  be  going  too  far,  however,  to  assert  that  it  has 
ceased  everywhere.  There  undoubtedly  are  commu- 
nities where  it  is  tolerated  ;  but  even  there,  as  a  rule, 
it  has  softened  several  of  the  harsh  features  of  its 
message.  Pfleiderer,  referring  to  the  works  of  Nitzsch 
and  Twesten,  and  particularly  to  Ull man's  **  Sinless- 
ness  of   Christ  "  and  Julius  Miiller's  volume  on  "  Sin," 


^  Consult  Graham's  "  Social  Life  in  Scotland,"  Vol.  II. 
"^  Donaldson's  "Toothpick  for  Swearers,"  Edinb.,  1697. 


3l6      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

says  that  ''  the  prevailing  aim  is  to  save  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  traditional  matter  of  the  ecclesiastical 
doirmas,"  while  their  harsh  and  offensive  features  are 
toned  down  by  expressions  borrowed  from  Schleier- 
macher.  And  not  only  in  Germany,  but  in  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  America,  a  similar  method  has  been 
followed  and  is  still  being  pursued  by  some  theologians, 
who  either  have  lost  confidence  in  the  system  and  yet 
fear  to  discard  it,  or  have  come  to  see  that  its  continu- 
ance depends  on  its  being  very  radically  modified.  But 
while  these  notable  exceptions  are  to  be  recognized,  it 
is  very  manifest  that  the  system  itself,  especially  as 
expounded  even  fifty  years  ago,  has  lost  its  hold  on  the 
conscience  and  intellect  of  the  present  day.  Its  in- 
fluence has  waned,  and  its  inexorable  logic  has  only  the 
shadow  of  its  former  tyranny  over  the  mind.  Multi- 
tudes do  not  hesitate  to  boast  that  they  have  freed 
themselves  from  its  depressing  and  melancholy  teach- 
ings, and  the  foremost  thinkers  of  the  age  do  not  seem 
bound  to  respect  its  theories  in  constructing  theologies. 
Indeed,  so  widespread  is  this  defection  that  were  an 
ancfel  to  visit  the  earth,  he  would  have  reason  to  modifv 
the  apocalyptic  cry  and  to  proclaim  aloud  :  "  The  Au- 
gustinian  theology  has  fallen,  has  fallen!  " 

Its  author,  Augustine,  was  unquestionably  a  remark- 
able man,  and  up  to  the  day  of  his  death,  A.  d.  430,  was 
one  of  the  most  potent  forces  in  shaping  the  future  of 
the  church  he  loved.  His  life  created  an  epoch  in  re- 
ligion unequal ed  in  importance  since  the  apostles  and 
never  to  be  paralleled  until  the  Reformation  ;  for  it 
gave  to  the  world  a  highly  articulated  system  of  doc- 
trine, whose   hold  on  thought   was   to   be   second   only 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  317 

to  the  sustained  effect  produced  by  the  writings  of  St. 
Paul.  The  apostle  had  profoundly  impressed  the  in- 
tellect of  Augustine.  It  was  through  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans  that  the  son  of  Monica  had  been  converted. 
He  had  also  been  trained  in  the  schools  of  the  empire. 
Both  currents,  the  apostolic  and  the  pagan,  met  in  him 
and  resulted  in  the  most  elaborate  and  complicated 
theology  ever  developed  by  human  ingenuity.  We  have 
already  seen,  when  discussing  the  ''  Divine  and  the  Hu- 
man "  in  religion,  how  various  philosophies  had  in- 
fluenced the  development  of  early  doctrine ;  and  how 
the  government  of  the  empire  had  supplied  a  model 
for  the  recasting  of  church  organization  and  polity ; 
but  now  we  find  this  government  exerting  considerable 
influence  on  Augustine's  dogmatic  system.  In  this 
opinion  we  are  strengthened  by  the  various  points  of 
seeming  agreement  between  them.  His  governing  con- 
ception, which  determined  all  he  wrote,  was  manifestly 
derived  from  what  he  saw  under  the  reign  of  the  Caesars. 
The  sovereignty  of  the  imperator  was  absolute  and  un- 
impeachable in  the  fifth  century,  and  his  representatives 
throughout  the  entire  secular  hierarchy  had  to  be  hon- 
ored by  implicit  and  unquestioning  obedience.  Auto- 
cratic decrees,  however  terrible  in  their  consequences, 
were  meekly  accepted  by  citizens,  and  none  of  them  dared 
to  say  to  the  throned  ruler,  "  What  doest  thou  ?  "  If 
protests  were  adventured,  death  or  banishment  ensued  ; 
and  if  the  mastery  at  last  became  unendurable,  civil  war 
or  insurrections  were  the  dubious  remedies.  Constitu- 
tional rights  were  unknown  when  Augustine  thought 
and  wrote.  It  was  regarded  as  in  every  way  just  and 
inevitable  that  a  monarch  should  do  as  he  pleased  with 


3l8      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

his  own.  Humanity,  as  such,  was  not  looked  on  as  sa- 
cred. The  sacred  thing  was  the  Caesar  and  his  authority. 
Everything  was  tributary  to  him.  And  if  he  chose  this 
favorite  or  that  eunuch  to  high  stations  near  his  person, 
and  if  he  passed  by  others  of  equal,  if  not  of  superior 
merit,  it  was  no  man's  prerogative  to  challenge  his  de- 
cisions. To  all  intents  and  purposes,  officially  at  least, 
he  could  do  no  wrong,  and  his  subjects,  in  reality,  had 
no  inalienable  rights  to  be  disregarded  or  violated. 
''  The  world  then  was  very  full  of  misery  ;  in  every  state 
there  was  a  great  mass  of  the  poor  and  wretched,  the 
outcasts  of  society  ;  while  there  was  an  inner  circle  of 
elect,  honored,  and  tolerably  happy  ones  for  whose 
benefit  the  whole  system  seemed  to  be  constructed  and 
maintained." 

By  the  grim,  savage  kind  of  light  which  these  envi- 
ronments cast  on  the  mind  of  Augustine,  he  interpreted 
the  sacred  page.  To  him  Jehovah  was  essentially  an 
infinite  Caesar,  to  question  whose  proceedings  would  be 
rebellion  and  blasphemy.  The  whole  earth  lay  at  the 
feet  of  the  dread  sovereign,  sinful  and  helpless,  devoid 
of  all  rights,  and  justly  doomed  to  everlasting  punish- 
ment. If  he,  therefore,  should  choose  any,  be  they 
many  or  few,  to  be  rescued  from  this  awful  condemna- 
tion, it  would  solely  be  of  his  compassion  ;  and  if  he 
passed  by  the  others,  or  if  "  the  rest  he  hardened,"  he 
would  be  within  the  bounds  of  his  absolute  authority 
and  would  commit  no  wrong  against  any  one.  It 
availed  nothing  to  say  in  remonstrance  that  compassion 
might  and  ought  to  have  comprehended  all  the  wretched, 
for  the  answer  was  prompt  :  the  infinitude  of  com- 
passion was  revealed  even  in  the  pardon  of  one  sinner, 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  319 

as  sin  against  an  infinite  being  became  itself  infinite 
guilt :  and  to  forgive  the  transgression  involved  an  in- 
finitude of  compassion.  Neither  did  it  produce  any  im- 
pression to  argue  that  all  God's  creatures  had  an  equal 
claim  on  his  beneficence  ;  for  it  was  affirmed  as  self- 
evident  and  fundamental  that  they  had  no  claim  on  him 
at  all ;  and  when  it  was  meekly  suggested  that  it  seemed 
peculiarly  hard  for  the  eternal  destiny  of  unhappy  mil- 
lions to  be  determined  for  them  before  they  were  born 
and  on  account  of  no  previous  wrong  by  them  com- 
mitted, the  intrepid  skeptic  was  sternly  reminded  that 
the  clay  had  no  right  to  debate  with  the  potter  why 
he  made  it  thus.  So  accustomed  was  mankind  to  this 
style  of  human  government  when  Augustine  wrote,  and 
so  oblivious  to  anything  really  higher,  that,  to  the  mass, 
there  was  nothing  shocking  or  unnatural  in  thinking  of 
the  Divine  in  almost  identical  terms. 

Nor  could  it  be  denied  that  there  were  many  texts 
in  the  Bible  that  seem  to  warrant  this  conception,  many 
of  them,  it  is  true,  grossly  perverted,  and  others  forced 
by  grievous  manipulation  to  do  service  contrary  to  their 
intent,  but  still  some  that  pointed  to  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Almighty  in  providence  and  salvation.  But,  as 
Fairbairn  intimates,  the  error  lay  in  explaining  the 
fatherhood  by  the  sovereignty,  instead  of  explaining 
the  sovereignty  by  the  fatherhood ;  for  if  the  latter 
method  had  been  adopted,  it  would  have  been  seen  that 
God  could  never  fail  the  humblest  of  his  creatures,  and 
could  never  foreordain  the  damnation  of  any,  and  cer- 
tainly could  never  condescend  to  trifle  with  the  work  of 
his  hands  by  extending  a  general  invitation  to  the  guilty 
which  he   had  made  no  provision  to  honor,  and  which, 


320      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

by  his  own  secret  decree,  he  had  rendered  impossible 
for  many  to  accept. 

That  some  features  of  this  Augustinian  doctrine  seem 
to  correspond  to  certain  teachings  of  the  Bible,  no  one 
has  seriously  questioned  ;  but  that  it  fairly,  as  a  whole, 
represents  the  mind  of  the  Spirit  is  now  strenuously 
denied ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  forces  similar  to 
those  which  contributed  to  its  development  are  now 
working  against  its  preservation.  Molded  in  no  small 
degree  at  the  beginning  by  approved  theories  of  govern- 
ment, just  as  soon  as  these  theories  had  been  rejected 
as  obsolete,  it  was  shrewdly  suspected  that  the  theolo- 
gical analogies  were  equally  untenable.  The  wreck  of 
feudalism  carried  with  it  into  the  depths  the  grim,  re- 
morseless system,  and  only  here  and  there  upon  the 
surface  masts,  spars,  and  shattered  boats  survive.  When 
nobler  visions  of  human  rights  dawned  on  the  world  ; 
when  it  was  realized  that  national  governments  should 
be  constitutional  and  ought  to  be  conducted  for  the 
good  of  the  governed  ;  when  it  was  perceived  that 
caprice  and  the  exercise  of  arbitrary  authority  are  un- 
reasonable and  perilous  in  earthly  administrations  ;  and 
when  it  was  decreed  that  every  one,  from  king  or  pres- 
ident down  to  the  humblest  subject  or  citizen,  must  be 
amenable  to  law,  and  sufficient  time  had  elapsed  for 
these  revolutionary  notions  to  be  assimilated  by  the 
people,  it  became  increasingly  difficult  to  believe  that 
God's  dominion  was  ordered  contrary  to  such  principles, 
and  was  at  heart  only  an  enlightened  despotism  tem- 
pered by  a  display  of  grace  toward  the  elect.  The 
adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the  over- 
throw of  the  Bourbons,  and  the  spread  of   liberal  ideas 


THE  REGENERATION  AND  DEVELOPMENT     32 1 

in  Europe,  have  had  much  to  do  in  revolutionizing  the- 
ology. It  is  now  reverently  declared  that  the  Creator 
is  bound  by  eternal  obligations  to  his  own  nature  never 
to  act  arbitrarily  and  partially  ;  that  love,  to  be  love,  par- 
ticularly divine  love,  cannot  discriminate  against  any 
when  all  are  equally  guilty  ;  that  the  humblest  creature 
has  rights  which  the  Almighty  himself,  if  he  would  pre- 
serve the  loyal  obedience  of  the  universe,  must  respect ; 
and  that  it  is  impossible  to  imagine  anything  being  beau- 
tiful, or  worthy,  or  glorious  in  him  which  is  contemptible 
and  shameful  in  ourselves. 

As  yet  we  have  no  theology  wrought  out  under 
modern  influences  worthy  to  take  the  place  of  the  no 
longer  credible  Augustinian  system.  At  present  we  are 
in  a  transition  state.  We  have  done  with  the  old,  and 
we  have  not  been  able  to  satisfy  ourselves  with  the  new. 
Very  creditable  attempts  have  been  made  in  Europe 
and  America  to  provide  a  substitute  ;  but  these  per- 
formances leave  much  to  be  desired,  often  lacking  in 
logical  precision,  or  deficient  in  philosophical  depth,  or 
sadly  wanting  in  scriptural  authentication.  But  we  must 
not  despair.  Original  theologians  are  rarer  than  original 
poets.  They  only  appear  occasionally.  We  must  pos- 
sess our  souls  in  patience.  Probably  the  time  has  not 
yet  arrived  when  the  new  theology  can  be  adequately 
fashioned.  More  data  are  demanded.  The  speech  of 
criticism  is  not  so  assured  as  it  has  been,  and  in  some 
respects  the  voice  of  science  falters.  To-morrow  may 
prove  more  fatal  to  aspiring  skepticisms  than  were  the 
famous  Ides  of  March  to  Julius  Caesar.  Possibly  not 
much  is  being  lost  by  the  delay  ;  and  when  the  con- 
structive genius  at  last  is  sent  by  God,  it  may  be  that 

v 


322      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

his  coming  will  be  timed,  as  all  God's  providential 
mercies  are,  to  meet  the  special  exigencies  of  a  crisis 
in  the  religious  world.  An  English  writer,  however,  has 
well  said  : 

No  previous  period  in  the  history  of  the  church  has  had  a 
better  right  to  examine  critically  the  dogmatic  systems  transmitted 
to  it,  than  the  present.  Indeed,  it  is  under  a  peculiar  obligation 
to  probe  and  test  their  structure  and  foundations.  A  great  critical 
movement  in  science,  philosophy,  and  history  has  changed  our 
intellectual  habits,  corrected  and  raised  the  standard  of  proof, 
and  discredited  many  theories  previously  unquestioned.  In  every 
field  fresh  truths  have  come  to  view,  shedding  new  light  on  the 
ways  of  God  and  on  human  nature,  as  well  as  on  the  essential 
and  historical  relations  of  God  and  man.  ^ 

Whither  all  this  accumulated  light  is  to  lead,  and  how 
it  will  be  utilized  by  modern  methods  of  inquiry,  no  one 
at  this  hour  can  accurately  foresee.  But  while  we  can- 
not sketch  with  precision  the  theology  of  the  future,  we 
can  point  out  several  tendencies  which  are  significant 
in  themselves,  and  which  may  be  taken  as  indicative  of 
the  goal  toward  which  religious  thought  is  journeying. 
What  these  tendencies  are,  I  undertake  to  describe  as 
best  I  may,  conscious  of  my  liability  to  err,  but  sincerely 
anxious  to  afford  a  reliable  and  intelligible  view  of  their 
peculiarities  and  characteristics. 

Among  them  I  assign  a  prominent  place  to  a  marked 
and  unmistakable  inclination  toward  humanism.  Since 
the  Reformation,  this  spirit  has  never  been  entirely 
absent  from  the  Christian  world  ;  but  usually  it  has 
identified  itself  w^ith  other  than  evangelical  doctrines. 
The  term   in   the  sixteenth   century  was  applied  to  two 

^  Chapman,  "Jesus  Christ  and  the  Present  Age,"  p.  170. 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  323 

classes  who  were  devoted  to  the  new  learning,  and  who 
expected  much  from  the  softening  influences  of  culture 
on  society.  These  classes,  speaking  geographically, 
were  trans-Alpine  and  cis-Alpine.  The  German  was 
distinguished  by  his  reverence  and  religiousness  ;  the 
Italian,  by  his  taste  and  skepticism.  Consequently, 
German  humanism  gave  the  age  Reuchlin  and  Erasmus, 
scholars  and  reformers ;  while  Italian  humanism  was 
interested  in  Platonic  academies,  in  literature  and  art. 
From  the  first  class,  in  due  course  of  time,  proceeded 
a  school  of  religious  thought  which  has  always  laid 
great  stress  on  culture,  and  whose  teachings  have  been 
broad  and  sympathetic,  revealing  in  gracious  philan- 
thropies ''  the  light  and  sweetness  "  by  which  they  were 
generated.  Wherever  such  a  spirit  now  exists,  and 
where  the  doctrines  taught  are  characterized  by  a  deep 
and  tender  regard  for  man,  and  are  beautiful  with  the 
sentiments  of  the  divine  fatherhood  and  the  brother- 
hood of  the  race  which  we  associate  with  all  refining 
enlightenment,  we  should  recognize  humanism.  Not, 
strictly  speaking,  the  humanism  of  the  Reformation  era, 
but  rather  the  humanism  of  Christ,  concerning  which, 
though  he  slightly  changes  the  form  of  the  word,  Cole- 
ridge writes  when  he  is  painting  the  primary  falling 
away  of  the  church  : 

This  was  the  true  and  first  apostasy,  when  in  council  and  synod 
the  Divine  Humanities  of  the  gospel  gave  way  to  speculative  sys- 
tems, and  religion  became  a  science  of  shadows  under  the  name 
of  theology,  or  at  best  a  bare  skeleton  of  truth,  without  life  or 
interest,  alike  inaccessible  and  unintelligible  to  the  majority  of 
Christians. 

Of    these    humanities,    we   obtain    a    fair   idea   from 


324      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  following  account  of  the  original  principles  of  our 
faith  : 

We  are  too  much  accustomed  to  look  upon  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  as  a  mere  change  of  opinions  about  God  and  the  next 
life,  instead  of  what  it  really  was,  a  moral  and  social  revolution 
of  incalculable  effect.  Christianity  contained  in  its  essential 
principles  a  most  powerful  solvent  of  clanhood  and  of  the  whole 
social  system  of  our  forefathers.  To  a  people  who  recognized  no 
tie  between  man  and  man  except  that  of  kindred,  or  that  between 
the  chieftain  and  the  follower,  it  proclaimed  the  universal  brother- 
hood of  mankind.  To  people  who  looked  upon  noble  birth  as 
something  divine,  who  bought  their  wives  like  slaves,  and  held 
other  men  in  slavery,  it  proclaimed  the  equality  of  all  human 
souls  in  the  sight  of  God,  without  distinction  of  male  or  female, 
bond  or  free.  To  a  people  who  exposed  their  children,  and  lived 
by  war,  it  proclaimed  the  sacredness  of  human  life.  To  a  people 
who  regarded  all  the  members  of  a  family  as  involved  in  the 
crime  of  one,  it  proclaimed  individual  responsibility.  To  a  peo- 
ple who  looked  upon  work  as  the  portion  of  women  and  slaves,  it 
proclaimed  the  dignity  of  free  labor  the  initiated  co-operation.^ 

But  from  these  ennobling  ideals,  the  church  gradually 
fell  away  ;  and  over  this  apostasy,  she  is  sorrowing  to- 
day ;  and  she  is  seeking  now  to  return  to  these  gospel 
humanities  which  mean  so  much  to  society  and  to  the 
world  at  large. 

Toward  this  result  Unitarianism,  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  has  in  no  small  degree  contributed,  and  in 
less  measure  Universalism  also.  The  former  of  these 
bodies  has  steadfastly  antagonized  Calvinism — another 
name  for  Augustinianism — and  representatives  of  its 
views  prior  to  the  organizations  of  its  churches  have 
suffered   bitter    persecution    rather    than    subscribe   to 


Armitage,  "  Childhood  of  the  English  Nation." 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  325 

what  they  regarded  as  fatal  to  the  unity  of  God  and 
the  social  happiness  of  man.  With  the  Quakers  and 
Baptists,  they  contended  heroically  for  freedom  of 
thought  and  conscience  ;  they  took  the  lead  in  benevo- 
lent enterprises  ;  were  among  the  foremost  assailants  of 
slavery ;  and  were  devoted,  as  they  now  are,  to  the 
sovereignty  of  liberalism  and  charity  in  religious  thought 
and  life.  Of  their  labors  in  these  directions,  too  much 
cannot  be  said.  We  are  all  their  debtors,  and  only 
churlishness  would  dispute  the  obligation.  Their  spirit 
to  a  great  extent  has  permeated  the  orthodox  churches, 
and  their  sentiments — I  do  not  say  doctrines — have 
tempered  and  softened  the  teachings  of  many  pulpits. 

Yet  we  shall  only  deceive  ourselves  if  we  imagine  that 
the  movement  we  are  studying  is  toward  Unitarianism 
as  a  doctrine.  It  is  not.  Frederick  Denison  Maurice, 
one  of  its  earliest  champions  in  England,  and  himself 
the  son  of  an  honored  Unitarian,  in  his  "  Essays  "  is  so 
far  from  inclining  toward  his  father's  belief  that  he  hes- 
itates not  to  say  that  if  Unitarians  are  to  hold  to  Christ 
and  Christianity  at  all,  they  must  hold  to  them  in  a 
deeper  sense  than  they  do.^  Also  J.  Baldwin  Brown, 
while  appreciative  of  the  testimony  these  disciples  have 
borne  to  the  equal  love  of  the  All-father,  perceives  the 
limitations  of  their  message  and  its  inadequacy  to  help 
and  bless  mankind.      He  writes  : 

But  there  the  [Unitarian's]  ministry  ends.  He  can  bear  witness 
against  partiaHty  in  God,  but  he  has  feeble  means,  in  his  creed, 
of  bearing  witness  to  his  love.  "Hereby  know  we  the  love  of 
God,  because  he  hath  laid  down  his  life  for  us."  How  does  the 
Unitarian  know  it  ?    What  can  he  tell  us  about  it  which  can  com- 


Tulloch,  "  Religious  Thought  in  Britain,"  p.  280. 


320      CHKISTIAMTV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

fort,  heal,  strengthen,  or  gladden  poor,  torn,  sin-stained,  sin-tor- 
mented hearts  ?  .  .  The  great,  toiling,  struggling  mass  find  no 
comfort  in  his  gospel,  because  no  life,  and  in  the  deepest  sense, 
no  love.' 

And,  therefore,  for  this  reason,  or  for  some  other,  this 
school  of  religious  thought  seems  to  have  little  power 
of  self-propagation.  It  proceeds  to  make  converts  with- 
in only  a  limited  area,  and  the  area  does  not  appear  to 
expand. 

This  has  not  escaped  observation  in  England,  where 
even  the  undoubted  genius  of  Martineau  has  failed  to 
arouse  any  extensive  interest  in  the  multiplication  of 
adherents.  When  in  America,  at  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  the  separation  occurred  between  the  Unitarians 
and  the  Orthodox,  the  "  defection  was  '  circumscribed 
within'  very  narrow  boundaries."  "A  radius  of  thirty- 
five  miles  from  Boston  as  a  center  would  sweep  almost 
the  whole  field  of  its  history  and  influence."  Admit- 
tedly, its  completeness  within  these  limits  was  remark- 
able. It  included  men  of  letters,  judges,  teachers,  and 
indeed,  the  best  and  most  cultured  minds  of  New  Eng- 
land.^ But,  nevertheless,  it  speedily  reached  the  end  of 
its  conquering  energy.  Not  all  the  brilliancy  and  elo- 
quence of  its  leaders,  nor  the  wonderful  preaching  power 
of  Channing,  the  Wares,  the  younger  Buckminster,  nor 
the  zeal  and  ability  of  their  successors.  Bellows,  Thomas 
Starr  King,  and  James  Freeman  Clarke,  could  impart 
to  it  the  charm  and  force  necessary  for  continuous  and 
ever-enlarging  victories.  That  it  has  domesticated  itself 
in  various  important  communities  since  the  beginning 

1  "First  Principles  of  Eccles.  Truth,"  p.  359. 
'^  Bacon,  "History  of  American  Christianity,"  p.  250. 


THE  REGENERATION  AND  DEVELOPMENT     32/ 

of  the  century,  and  that  its  supporters,  both  lay  and 
cleric,  are  highly  respected  and  entitled  to  respect,  is 
acknowledged  without  the  least  hesitancy  or  reluctance. 
Still,  the  striking  impotence  and  infecundity  of  the  de- 
nomination are  as  manifest  at  the  present  hour  as  at 
any  previous  period.  The  note  of  universality  as  a  re- 
ligion seems  to  be  lacking. 

To  say,  by  way  of  explanation  or  apology,  that  Uni- 
tarianism  is  specifically  fitted  to  the  cultured  classes,  is 
only  to  render  the  absence  of  this  note  more  painfully 
conspicuous,  and  also  to  imply  that  its  teachings  are 
seriously  divergent  from  that  gospel  which  from  the 
lips  of  Christ,  was  so  precious  to  the  poor  and  illiterate. 
No,  the  tendency  I  am  interpreting  is  not  toward  Uni- 
tarianism.  Though  influenced  and  stimulated  by  it,  this 
tendency  transcends  its  limitations  and  flows  onward  in 
other  channels. 

The  new  humanism  which  has  transformed  much  of 
our  recent  theology  is  essentially  evangelical.  While  it 
rejects  the  hard,  rigid,  and  arid  features  of  Augustinian- 
ism,  and  of  its  offspring,  Calvinism,  it  cherishes  the  fun- 
damental doctrines  of  grace,  and  finds  the  key  to  their 
meaning  in  the  fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood 
of  man.  It  talks  not  at  all  about  predestinations  and 
reprobations  ;  it  does  not  dwell  on  the  divine  wrath  ; 
feels  that  such  preaching  has  been  greatly  overdone ;  it 
has  no  confidence  in  limited  atonements  or  in  anything 
''limited"  that  represents  the  Almighty,  except  his 
anger  ;  it  has  little  patience  with  the  "  schemes  of  re- 
demption," presumptuously  attributed  to  his  wisdom, 
which  not  infrequently  have  furnished  evidence  of  men's 
folly ;  but  instead,  it  magnifies  the  love  of  God  ;  beholds 


328      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

that  love  in  the  sacrifice  of  Christ ;  believes  that  through 
that  love  humanity  is  begotten  again  to  love,  and  when 
perplexed  and  overborne  by  the  saddening  mysteries  of 
life,  cries  out 

I  stretch  lame  hands  of  faith,  and  grope, 
And  gather  dust  and  chaff,  and  call 
To  what  I  feel  is  Lord  of  all, 

And  faintly  trust  the  larger  hope. 

Of  those  who  have  been  foremost  in  the  development 
of  this  new  humanism,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  speak 
without  reserve.  They  should  be  regarded  as  pioneers 
whose  enthusiasm  may  have  betrayed  them  into  errors. 
Nor  is  it  necessary  that  we  should  pause  to  consider 
what  to  us  may  seem  erroneous,  when  our  only  concern 
is  with  the  main  and  unique  characteristic  of  their  work. 
We  go  back  to  Herder,  who  had  much  to  do  with  its 
revival  in  modern  times,  and  he  defines  it  for  us  in  this 
concise  and  comprehensive  way:  "Christianity  is  the 
ideal  religion,  and  religion  is  ideal  humanity."  And 
further  : 

In  the  heart  of  Jesus  was  written  :  God  is  my  father  and  the 
father  of  all  men  :  all  men  are  brothers.  To  this  religion  of  hu- 
manity he  dedicated  his  life,  which  he  was  ready  wholly  to  offer 
up,  if  his  religion  might  be  that  of  all  men.  For  it  concerns  the 
fundamental  nature  of  our  race,  both  its  original  and  final  destiny. 
Through  it  the  weaknesses  of  mankind  serve  to  call  forth  a  nobler 
power  ;  every  oppressive  evil,  human  wickedness  even,  becomes 
an  incentive  to  its  own  defeat. 

Subsequent  German  theology,  while  often  differing  in 
important  conceptions  from  those  of  Herder,  has  con- 
tinually reproduced  his  spirit,  not  merely  in  writers  like 
Schleiermacher,  but  in  others,  like  Rothe  and  Dorner. 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  329 

Martensen,  the  Danish  theologian,  declares  that  ''  the 
great  problem  of  the  modern  age  is  the  living  union  of 
Christianity  and  humanism  "  ;  and  onward  to  the  days 
of  Ritschl,  Hofmann,  and  Kattenbusch,  the  endeavors 
among  brilliant  scholars  to  bring  about  this  union  have 
been  unceasing. 

Great  Britain,  likewise,  has  shared  in  these  enlight- 
ened labors.  In  England,  what  is  known  as  the  ''Broad 
Church,"  represented  by  such  men  as  Maurice,  Kingsley, 
and  Robertson,  themselves  in  no  small  measure  influenced 
by  Coleridge,  antagonized  the  narrowness  of  Anglican- 
ism and  Calvinism ;  while  its  great  poet,  Tennyson, 
struck  the  keynote  of  its  lofty  anthem  in  the  magnifi- 
cent ascription,  "  Strong  Son  of  God,  Immortal  Love." 
The  crowning  thought  of  Maurice  may  be  summed  up 
in  the  words  :  "  The  truth  is  that  every  man  is  in 
Christ ;  the  condemnation  of  every  man  is  that  he  will 
not  own  the  truth — he  will  not  act  as  if  it  were  true 
that  except  he  were  joined  to  Christ  he  could  not  think, 
breathe,  live  a  single  hour."  But  Maurice  had  learned 
this  from  an  earlier  writer,  and  one  to  whom  the  entire 
school  of  liberal  evangelical  theology  is  indebted,  and  he 
a  layman  and  a  Scotchman,  Thomas  Erskine,  of  Linla- 
then.  In  1820,  his  first  book  appeared,  and  in  1828  he 
developed  the  thought  that  pardon  is  already  granted  to 
every  sinner  in  the  mission  and  death  of  Christ.  He 
says  ;  "  The  pardon  of  the  gospel  is  in  effect  a  declara- 
tion on  the  part  of  God  to  every  individual  sinner  in  the 
whole  world  that  his  holy  compassion  embraces  him  and 
the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  has  atoned  for  his  sins."  Fur- 
thermore, "  Salvation  is  the  healing  of  the  spiritual  dis- 
eases of  the  soul";  and  eternal  life  ''the  communica- 


330      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tion  of  the  life  of  God  to  the  soul."  ^  These  opinions 
startled  orthodox  Scotland,  and  led  to  much  disputation 
and  anguish,  though  something  like  them  is  not  now 
uncommon  in  Edinburgh.  Doctor  Chalmers  did  not  en- 
tirely disapprove  of  what  Erskine  wrote  regarding  "  the 
freeness  of  the  gospel";  and  Dr.  Macleod  Campbell  ex- 
panded hints  received  from  this  writer  into  a  treatise  on 
the  atonement,  and  traces  of  his  views  may  be  detected 
in  the  writings  of  Professor  Seeley,  and  of  others  who 
have  made  for  themselves  a  name  in  literature  and  re- 
ligion. One  who  did  much  in  the  same  direction,  though 
classified  as  a  moderate  Calvinist,  was  Andrew  Fuller,  a 
Baptist  preacher,  a  friend  of  Robert  Hall  and  a  leader 
in  the  foreign  mission  enterprise.  His  writings  are  rug- 
ged, simple,  strong,  lacking  in  charms  of  elegant  com- 
position, but  from  their  earnest  sincerity  carrying  con- 
viction to  the  inquiring  mind.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  he  did  for  Nonconformist  theology  in  England  what 
Hopkins  was  largely  instrumental  in  doing  for  America. 
Among  these  leaders  of  thought  in  America,  and  easily 
equal  with  the  greatest,  we  recognize  Henry  Ward 
Beecher,  Dr.  Horace  Bushnell,  and  Bishop  Phillips 
Brooks. 

These  distinguished  men,  however,  have  not  been 
alone  in  their  humanizing  ministry.  They  have  been 
chieftains  in  an  army  of  no  mean  proportions  and  one 
that  is  increasing  every  year.  Men  and  women  who 
have  been  familiar  with  preaching  in  this  country  for 
the  last  fifty  years  can  hardly  have  failed  to  observe  a 
very  significant  change  in  its  predominating  tone.  Ser- 
mons on  eternal  punishment  are  exceedingly  rare,  and, 

1  Tulloch,  "Religious  Thought  in  Britain,"  pp.  140,  142. 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  33 1 

rarer  still,  discussions  on  the  decrees  of  God.  Discourses 
on  the  divine  love  are  increasingly  frequent,  and  the 
gracious  work  of  Christ  and  the  sanctifying  mission  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  are  receiving  more  and  more  attention. 
Less  is  heard  about  the  privileges  and  glories  of  the 
elect  and  more  about  the  duties  of  God's  children,  and, 
if  not  so  much  time  is  given  to  descriptions  of  everlast- 
ing felicity,  it  is  because  the  feeling  is  stronger  than  in 
the  past  that  the  church  should  try  to  do  more  than  she 
has  done  to  promote  temporal  felicity.  Eschatology 
has  lost  much  of  its  old  charm  for  the  majority  of  culti- 
vated people.  They  at  least  have  come  to  realize,  with 
no  small  degree  of  mortification,  that  the  most  scholarly 
interpretations  of  unfulfilled  prophecies  and  the  most 
confident  predictions  regarding  the  end  of  all  things 
have  so  frequently  miscarried  and  come  to  nothing  that 
they  may  well  be  excused  if  they  decline  to  dogmatize 
on  what  seems  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  discovery.  If 
preachers  hesitate  to  speak  on  these  themes  it  is  not 
because  they  fear  the  criticisms  of  worldly  people  ;  it  is 
because  they  fear  the  reproach  of  their  own  conscience 
should  they  continue  to  talk  on  subjects  which  have 
exhausted  the  energies  and  wasted  the  lives  of  noble 
men  like  Miller,  Eliot,  and  Gumming  in  fruitless  expo- 
sitions, while  practical  work  demands  the  immediate 
doing  for  the  salvation  of  the  individual  and  society. 
That  there  is  still  a  large  number  of  devout  souls  who 
conscientiously  feel  that  the  principal  business  of  the 
saint  is  to  study  the  future  and  to  proclaim  the  world's 
impending  doom, — which  is  often  done  with  the  most 
singular  cheerfulness, — we  do  not  overlook,  just  as  we 
are  not  oblivious  to  the  fact  that  a  yet  larger  number 


332      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

profess  continued  allegiance  to  the  doctrines  of  John 
Calvin. 

But  what  I  maintain  is  that  the  tide  has  turned,  that 
the  drift  is  away  from  the  hard  coast-line  and  narrow 
inlets  of  his  system  to  the  tideless  ocean  of  infinite  love. 
And  even  those  who  yet  profess  fealty  to  the  old  school 
have,  in  most  instances,  departed  farther  from  it  in 
spirit  than  they  themselves  may  realize.  They  too  feel 
the  influence  of  humanism.  In  the  United  States,  to- 
day, sermons  of  the  Cotton  Mather  or  Jonathan  Edwards 
type  are  few  and  far  between.  If  it  is  answered  that 
better  v^ould  it  be  for  the  church  were  it  otherwise,  I 
can  only  say  that  that  is  not  for  me  to  discuss.  I  am 
trying  to  point  out  what  is,  not  what  might  have  been  ; 
and  I  simply  claim  that  the  spirit  of  humanism  has 
taken  possession  of  the  modern  pulpit,  and  that  it  pre- 
vails so  completely  that  Augustine  and  Calvin  would 
not  recognize  as  theirs  the  theology  which  some  learned 
men  yet  profess  to  expound  in  their  names  ;  while  in  the 
majority  of  instances  preachers  of  the  gospel  have  dis- 
carded that  theology  altogether  and  are  proclaiming 
simple  evangelical  truths  in  so  genuinely  a  human  way 
that  the  world  is  coming  to  perceive  that  Christianity  is 
not,  as  has  been  suspected,  the  religion  of  the  priest, 
the  scholar,  and  the  aristocrat,  but  is  essentially  and 
pre-eminently  the  religion  of  humanity. 

Another  tendency  to  be  noted  and  examined,  and  one 
rich  in  possibilities,  reveals  itself  in  the  persistent  en- 
deavors to  find  for  theology  a  scientific  basis.  The 
older  orthodoxy  maintained  that  religious  dogmas  were 
true  or  false  ''  without  any  reference  to  a  subjective 
standard  of  judgment."      "They  were  true  as  pure  data 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  333 

of  revelation  or  as  the  propositions  of  an  authorized 
creed  settled  long  ago.  Reason  had  so  far  nothing  to 
do  with  them.  Christian  truth,  it  was  supposed,  lay  at 
hand  in  the  Bible,  an  appeal  to  which  settled  every- 
thing." But  this  principle,  which  seemed  so  simple  and 
satisfactory  to  believers  in  the  eighteenth  century,  has 
not,  at  least  in  these  terms,  maintained  its  ascendency 
over  their  children.  Without  necessarily  controverting 
the  authority  of  the  Bible,  the  question  arose  before  the 
century  closed  and  has  commanded  more  and  more  atten- 
tion ever  since,  whether  its  interpretations  ought  not  to 
be  tested  by  an  appeal  to  the  actual  in  man  and  in 
nature,  and  whether  their  verification  by  this  process 
would  not  impart  to  them  the  certainty  which  is  asso- 
ciated with  scientific  demonstrations.  In  working  out 
this  problem  more  than  one  general  plan  or  philosophic 
theory  has  been  devised,  and  in  some  instances  the  ex- 
periment of  application  has  proven  too  destructive  for 
it  to  be  adopted.  Rationalism,  as  it  is  called,  is  an 
example  in  point.  As  a  rule,  from  the  days  of  Kant 
until  now  it  has  assumed  too  much  and  has  had  to 
change  its  grounds  too  often  for  its  conclusions  to  be 
long  respected.  The  important  and  ennobling  influence 
of  Kant's  philosophy  must  be  conceded,  and  yet  it  is 
difficult  to  reconcile  some  of  its  speculations  with  the 
claims  of  Christianity  as  a  historical  religion,  and  it  be- 
comes well-nigh  impossible  in  the  hands  of  Ammon, 
Bretschneider,  and  Wegscheider.  When  we  come  to 
Paulus,  at  Heidelberg,  the  discord  reaches  an  alarming 
stage.  There  the  miracles  of  Christ  are  accounted  for 
on  the  supposition  that  they  were  merely  remarkable 
but  perfectly  natural,  parabolical  events.      Herder,  be- 


334      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

fore  Paiilus,  had  manifested  a  dislike  for  the  miracle, 
though  he  regards  the  wonders  of  the  baptismal  scene, 
the  transfiguration,  and  the  resurrection,  "  as  the  three 
bright  spots  in  the  celestial  authentication  of  the  conse- 
crated one."  And  yet  when  he  has  said  this  he  adds, 
*'  They  have  a  secret  advocate  in  the  human  heart," 
leading  us  to  doubt  whether  he  is  attaching  value  to 
them  as  outward  realities  at  all.  He  is  unquestionably 
at  one  with  Lessing  in  the  position  that  the  truth  of  a 
doctrine  cannot  be  dependent  on  miracle.  "  Was  it 
necessary  for  fire  to  fall  from  heaven  two  thousand 
years  ago  in  order  that  we  may  now  see  the  bright  sun  ? 
Must  the  laws  of  nature  have  been  then  suspended  if 
we  are  now  to  be  convinced  of  the  internal  necessity, 
truth,  and  beauty  of  the  moral  and  spiritual  kingdom  .? "  ^ 
The  answer,  from  the  very  form  of  the  question,  can  be 
anticipated  ;  but  this  denial  of  supernatural  interposi- 
tions brought  into  doubt  and  debate  the  supernatural 
itself,  and  theologians  were  compelled  to  cry  a  halt 
when  the  foundation  of  all  religion  was  assailed.  In 
our  day  critical  rationalism  assumes,  as  one  of  the  first 
principles  to  be  accepted  in  historical  investigation,  the 
impossibility  of  the  supernatural.  But  that  which  the 
rationalist  asserts  to  be  impossible,  multitudes  of  the 
human  family  believe,  and  it  is  the  very  issue  under 
discussion.  It  cannot  be  disposed  of  in  this  off-hand 
manner.  Here,  therefore,  it  is  evident  that  this  kind  of 
rationalism  has  not  succeeded  in  furnishing  anything 
like  a  scientific  basis  for  theology. 

Failure,  however,  along  this  line  has   not   prevented 
fresh    attempts    along    others.     Idealism    in     Schleier- 

^  Pfleiderer,  "Development  of  Doctrine,"  pp.  37,  103. 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  335 

macher  and  Coleridge,  teaching  that  "  there  can  be  no 
truth  which  does  not  rise  out  of  and  answer  to  the 
human  mind,"  resulted  in  the  elevation  of  consciousness 
as  the  ultimate  criterion  of  an  alleged  revelation.  Con- 
sequently the  great  German  proceeds,  from  his  own 
inner  life  and  experience,  to  give  an  account  of  the 
Christian  faith,  and  assumes  that  the  experience  of  the 
church  is  identical  with  his  own.  But  this  doctrine  in 
its  original  form  has  been  usually  regarded  as  too  vi- 
sionary and  mystical  to  really  serve  a  scientific  purpose. 
A  modified  form  of  it,  however,  in  Great  Britain  'las 
met  with  more  favor.  There  Doctor  Mearns,  1818, 
taught  that  it  was  impossible  to  judge  of  *' the  divine 
origin  of  Christianity  apart  from  a  consideration  of  its 
real  nature,  both  as  revealing  the  character  of  God  and 
as  bearing  on  the  character  of  man."  On  this  subject, 
Erskine  writes  : 

The  reasonableness  of  a  religion  seems  to  me  to  consist  in  there 
being  a  direct  and  natural  connection  between  a  believing  of  the 
doctrines  which  it  inculcates,  and  a  being  formed  by  these  to  the 
character  which  it  recommends.  If  the  belief  of  the  doctrines  has 
no  tendency  to  train  a  disciple  in  a  more  exact  and  more  willing 
discharge  of  its  moral  obligations,  there  is  evidently  a  very  strong 
probability  against  the  truth  of  that  religion.  What  is  the  history 
of  another  world  to  me  unless  it  have  some  intelligible  relation  to 
my  duties  or  happiness  ? 

He  had  testified,  before  this,  that  he  had  perceived  a 
light  in  the  gospel  narrative  which  entirely  satisfied  his 
reason  and  conscience,  and  he  did  not  hesitate  to  inti- 
mate that  had  it  been  otherwise  he  could  not  have  ac- 
cepted the  record.  In  this  connection,  when  speaking 
of  Christianity,  he  says  :  "  I  must  discern  in  the  history 


336      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

itself  a  light  and  a  truth  which  will  meet  the  demands 
both  of  my  reason  and  conscience.  In  fact,  however 
true  the  history  may  be,  it  cannot  be  of  any  moral  and 
spiritual  benefit  to  me  until  I  apprehend  its  truth  and 
meaning."  Views  similar  to  these,  if  not  identical,  have 
taken  hold  of  a  large  portion  of  the  Christian  commu- 
nity, and  it  is  believed  by  many  that  a  true  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures  will  meet  with  a  response  in  the  soul, 
and  that  a  doctrine  actually  repugnant  to  man's  spir- 
itual and  moral  nature  must  be  set  aside  as  doubtful,  if 
not  discarded  as  false.  This  principle,  it  is  admitted, 
may  be  too  vigorously  applied,  and  it  may  be  sadly  per- 
verted ;  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  confidently  asserted  that 
it  indicates  the  direction  in  which  a  scientific  basis  for 
theology  will  be  discovered  at  last. 

It  is  specially  interesting  to  observe  how  this  clew 
has  been  followed  in  France,  and  to  what  consequences 
it  has  led.  We  all  know  that  the  French  mind  is  emi- 
nently critical ;  that,  in  Descartes,  it  antagonized  the 
scholastic  reasoning  of  the  Middle  Ages;  and  that  it 
has  acted  as  a  kind  of  dissolvent  for  antique  dogma- 
tisms. It  was  then  only  natural  that,  after  the  revival 
of  1832,  at  which  time  religious  feeling  reassumed  sway, 
and  such  books  as  Chateaubriand's  ^^  Lcs  ]\fartyrs''  and 
Joseph  de  Maistre's  ^'  Du  Pape''  were  welcomed  by  a 
host  of  readers,  there  should  be  a  disposition  on  the 
part  of  some  who  had  experienced  the  new  current  of 
life  to  criticize  their  faith.  This  was  done  with  much 
thoroughness,  though  not  always  with  the  most  gratify- 
ing results.  After  some  years  of  this  searching  pro- 
cess, about  i860,  several  earnest  men  brought  up  under 
the  revival,  set  out  to  Germany  that  they  might  there 


THE  REGENERATION  AND  DEVELOPMENT     33/ 

study  the  condition  of  theological  science  and  historical 
criticism.  They  returned  from  their  sojourn  convinced 
that  the  great  conflict  of  our  time  is  not  only  between 
science  and  revelation,  but  between  the  scientific  spirit 
on  the  one  side,  and  on  the  other,  religious  truths  or 
teachings  and  Christian  experiences.  This  conflict, 
they  determined,  must  be  brought  to  an  end  ;  for  there 
ought  to  be  no  discord  between  the  scientific  method 
and  the  Christian  faith. 

Well,  how  did  they  proceed  }  Their  explanation 
begins  with  the  Christian  consciousness,  and  their  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  is  a  mystical  solution.  They  an- 
nounced as  fundamental  the  indwelling  of  God  in  the 
heart  of  every  man.  God,  they  argued,  is  a  personal 
and  transcendent  being  ;  but  he  is  also  immanent  in  his 
creatures,  and  is  thus  the  source  and  inspiration  of  piety. 
Faith  is  the  filial  and  absolute  abandonment  of  self  to 
the  paternal  direction  of  God  ;  it  invites  him  to  act  on 
life  internally  and  externally.  By  his  internal  action 
he  causes  joyous  assurance  of  sonship,  transforms  into 
his  own  image  and  communicates  his  own  moral  excel- 
lencies, justice,  love,  holiness  ;  and  by  his  external 
providences,  by  the  vicissitudes,  trials,  and  chastise- 
ments he  sends,  he  inculcates  gratitude,  confidence, 
submission,  self-sacrifice,  and  surrender  to  the  divine 
will.  Regeneration  is  this  work  of  death  to  self  and 
of  life  in  God,  initiated  by  Jesus  Christ  and  effected 
through  the  two-fold  activity  already  noticed.  It  is 
claimed  that  this  new  life  is  the  fundamental  experience, 
the  fact  that  no  amount  of  theorizing  can  invalidate, 
and  that  being  fact,  it  constitutes  a  true  basis  for  the 
construction  of  scientific  theology,  which  consists  in  the 


338      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

explanation  of  the  initial  fact  itself.  The  school  which 
maintains  these  opinions  is  called  in  France  *'  Syvibolo- 
Fid^ismc!'  because  we  are  saved  by  faith  independently 
of  creed,  and  because  the  explanation  or  dogma  formu- 
lating religious  experience  can  never  adequately  define 
the  movements  and  magnitudes  of  spiritual  realities, 
and  must,  therefore,  be  only  an  imperfect  and  temporary 
symbol  by  which  the  church,  in  the  philosophic  language 
of  the  day,  tries  to  express  the  postulates  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  These  postulates  are  always  the  same  ;  but 
the  interpretation  will  vary  with  the  intelligence  of  the 
interpreter  and  be  governed  by  the  advance  of  knowl- 
edge. They  being  fixed,  and  no  limits  being  imposed 
on  the  mind  that  strives  to  comprehend  and  formulate 
them,  it  is  claimed  that  a  scientific  basis  for  theology 
has  been  established,  and  that  the  method  employed  in 
developing  this  theology  meets  the  demands  of  the 
scientific  spirit. 

As  might  be  expected,  considerable  latitude  of  belief 
prevails  among  the  adherents  of  this  school.  M.  Mene- 
goz,  for  example,  holds  to  the  fall,  to  the  supernatural 
birth  of  Christ,  to  his  resurrection,  and  to  most  of  the 
gospel  miracles  ;  while  M.  Manebian  doubts  several  of 
these  points,  and  he  and  others  entertain  conflicting 
views  about  our  Lord,  his  divinity,  his  pre-existence,  and 
the  object  and  effects  of  his  suffering.  While  they  do 
not  harmonize  in  expositions,  they  insist  that  they  are 
all  working  from  a  true  scientific  basis,  and  that  the  re- 
sults will  become  increasingly  satisfactory.  Whether 
they  are  warranted  in  this  confidence  or  not,  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  their  fundamental  conception  is  influen- 
tial in  France.      It  is  well  known  that  the  theological 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  339 

seminary  formerly  located  at  Strasburg,  but  which  was 
removed  to  Paris  in  1877,  or,  strictly  speaking,  that 
portion  of  it  that  desired  to  remain  French,  has  dis- 
tinguished itself  by  expounding  and  defending  the  new 
theology.  Pastors  and  churches  that  have  passed  from 
rationalism,  and  have  not  been  satisfied  with  liberalism, 
under  the  influence  of  religious  revival  and  the  revival 
of  historical  study,  have  been  drawn  to  this  movement, 
which  seems  to  meet  the  needs  both  of  their  spiritual 
nature  and  of  the  critical  faculty.  In  other  parts  of 
the  world  the  ''  Symbolo-Fid^sme''  philosophy  has 
gained  not  a  few  adherents,  chiefly  through  the  writings 
of  Professor  Sabatier,  and  through  the  circulation  of  a 
popular  treatise  by  M.  Menegoz  entitled  ^'Reflexions 
siir  r Evangile  du  Salute  This  philosophy  very  likely 
will  not  be  able  to  fulfill  all  of  its  promises  ;  but,  nev- 
ertheless, it  is  a  sign  of  the  times  that  should  not  be 
ignored.  It  accentuates  a  tendency.  Disguise  it  as 
we  may,  there  is  a  widespread  craving  for  a  theological 
system  that  shall  rest  on  a  scientific  basis,  and  shall  be 
at  one  with  the  scientific  spirit.  It  would  have  this 
built  on  documents  whose  value  has  been  scientifically 
determined,  and  on  the  facts  of  consciousness  and  ex- 
perience scientifically  studied.  '^  Symbolo-Fideisme''  is 
but  symptomatic  of  this  more  general  movement,  which 
cannot  be  arrested,  and  for  whose  healthful  develop- 
ment our  theological  professors  must  be  held  respon- 
sible in  the  future. 

There  is  a  third  and  final  distinct  tendency  in  modern 
theology  to  be  taken  account  of  in  this  study.  I  refer 
to  the  trend  and  current  of  its  investigations,  setting 
more  and  more  in  the  direction  of   Christ.     Not  the 


340      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

decrees  of  the  Almighty,  nor  the  metaphysical  disquisi- 
tions on  trinality,  nor  the  offices  and  authority  of  the 
church,  are  the  subjects  of  supreme  importance  to  the 
thinking  religious  world  of  to-day.  Now,  as  perhaps 
never  in  the  past,  it  is  realized  that  the  interpretation 
of  the  historical  Jesus  should  precede  these  and  similar 
inquiries.  As  Principal  Caird  has  taught,  the  doctrine 
of  our  Lord's  person  and  offices  will,  in  the  future,  con- 
stitute '*  the  articulns  stantis  vcl  cadcntis  ecclesicey 
Christ  himself  being  the  revelation  of  the  Father  and 
the  founder  of  the  church,  if  we  would  understand 
them  we  must  begin  by  understanding  him.  Because 
of  this  principle,  it  has  been  said  that  the  theology  of 
the  nineteenth  century  is  Christocentric,  a  term,  to  me, 
a  trifle  strained  and  affected,  but  intended  to  convey 
the  idea  that  as  the  solar  system  is  heliocentric  and  not 
geocentric,  so  our  Lord  himself,  and  not  a  speculation 
or  an  institution,  is  the  very  heart  and  soul  of  the 
Christian  system,  and  that  any  religious  doctrine,  to  be 
worth  anything,  must  revolve  around  him  and  derive  its 
lustre  from  his  light.  Thus  Herder  wrote  of  him,  of 
his  person,  and  not  exclusively  of  his  teachings,  and, 
according  to  his  Weimar  installation  sermon,  represented 
him  as  the  real  source  of  our  participation  in  the  divine 
nature  and  of  the  glorious  equality  we  enjoy  in  the 
feast  of  love.  Martensen,  whom  I  have  already  quoted, 
affirmed  that  *'  Christianity  is  essentially  Christ  him- 
self"  ;  and  so  strong  a  hold  had  this  idea  on  Schleier- 
macher  that,  while  he  did  not  deny  his  historicity,  he 
maintained  what  appears  a  contradictory  position,  that 
Christ  is  the  product  of  the  Christian  consciousness,  and 
that  the  Christian  consciousness  has  been  formed  and 


THE    REGEiNERATlON    AND    DEVELOPMENT  34 1 

continued  by  Christ.  Hegel  also,  though  not  believing 
the  doctrine  of  the  two  natures,  held  that  the  historical 
Saviour  was  conscious  of  being  himself  one  with  the 
Divine  will,  and  that  he  brought  home  the  great  truth 
that  God  is  not  afar  off,  but  is  present  by  his  love  in 
the  human  heart.  Dorner,  representing  the  eclectic 
mediating  theology  of  Germany,  argues  that,  as  Chris- 
tianity is  the  absolute  religion,  it  necessitates  an  abso- 
lute God-man  as  its  center,  "  the  central  individual," 
who  is  not  only  the  center  of  humanity,  but  also  of  the 
entire  spiritual  world. 

Most  of  these  judgments  were  mainly  the  result  of 
speculations,  but  the  speculations  prepared  the  way  for 
the  critical  study  of  Christ's  life,  which,  in  its  turn,  has 
rendered  him  more  real  to  faith  and  begotten  a  pro- 
founder  love  for  his  person.  Of  the  importance  of  this 
study,  we  have  no  doubt ;  but  we  hesitate  to  speak  of 
it,  as  some  of  our  contemporaries  have  done,  as  actu- 
ally resulting  in  the  recovery  of  the  historic  Christ. 
Let  us  estimate  the  exact  significance  and  necessary 
limitations  of  these  inquiries.  They  have  not  made 
any  perceptible  additions  to  the  facts  we  have  in  the 
four  Gospels  ;  they  have  not  increased  our  knowledge 
of  our  Lord's  earthly  career  ;  and  they  have  not  con- 
firmed what  we  know  by  new  light  from  ancient  liter- 
ature. They  have  served  to  harmonize  the  accounts 
furnished  by  the  evangelists  ;  they  have  succeeded  in 
correcting  and  enlarging  our  ideas  of  the  social  condi- 
tions prevailing  when  Jesus  appeared  ;  they  have  also 
explained,  by  interpreting  the  customs  and  traditions  of 
the  age,  many  interesting  details  ;  and  they  have  im- 
parted a  certain  vividness  and  realness  to  the  entire 


342      CHRISTIANITY    IX    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Story  by  their  geographical  descriptions  and  by  the 
pains  they  have  taken  in  reproducing  scenery,  buildings, 
routes  of  travel,  costumes,  and  other  features  of  the 
country  and  age.  All  this  is  an  undoubted  gain,  and 
we  ought  to  be  grateful  to  the  men  who  have  toiled  so 
zealously  in  this  field.  But  our  appreciation  and  admi- 
ration ought  not  to  carry  us  too  far.  These  critical 
studies  have  not  altered  a  feature  nor  modified  the  por- 
trait of  the  Christ  as  presented  in  the  Gospels  ;  and  it 
is,  therefore,  misleading  to  credit  them  with  so  remark- 
able an  achievement  as  the  recovery  of  the  historic 
Christ.  They  have  not  restored  him  to  history ;  for  he 
could  never  be  lost  so  long  as  the  Gospels  were  pre- 
served. But  they  have  restored  history  to  him  in  the 
sense  that  they  have  made  it  tributary  to  a  better  and 
more  accurate  knowledge  of  his  environment  and  move- 
ments. 

The  abundance  of  the  labors  performed  in  this  cause 
is  itself  one  of  the  chief  features  distinguishing  the 
nineteenth  century  from  its  predecessors.  No  century 
has  been  so  j^rolific  as  ours  in  biographies  of  our  Lord, 
critical,  romantic,  and  sentimental.  Several  of  these  are 
only  reproductions  of  previous  volumes,  differing  in 
arrangement  and  style,  original  in  modes  of  coloring, 
but  supplying  no  fresh  information.  Some  of  them 
derive  their  sole  significance,  not  from  their  subject,  but 
from  the  name  of  the  author,  and  have  no  historical 
value  whatever  ;  but  this  endless  stream  of  publications, 
in  which  necessarily  there  can  be  no  substantially  new 
light,  indicates  the  hold  that  the  theme  has  on  the 
popular  mind  and  heart. 

The  world  seems  never  to  weary  of  the  story  of  Jesus, 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  343 

and  is  prepared  to  listen  to  it  over  and  over  again. 
This  popular  interest  has  been  manifest  from  the  time 
that  the  ''  Lcbcn  Jesu''  of  Strauss  startled  conservative 
faith  in  Germany.  Of  the  real  trend  of  this  book,  an 
impression  may  be  formed  from  these  statements : 
**The  author  knows  that  the  essence  of  the  Christian 
faith  is  entirely  independent  of  his  critical  inquiries. 
The  supernatural  birth  of  Christ,  his  miracles,  his 
resurrection  and  ascension,  remain  eternal  truths,  hov^- 
ever  much,  as  historical  facts,  they  may  be  doubted." 
One  can  readily  imagine  to  what  extremes  of  denial  he 
would  be  led  in  future  publications  from  such  a  premise 
as  this  ;  but  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  while  he 
undermines  the  very  foundations  of  faith,  he  has  this, 
and  much  more  like  it,  to  say  of  Jesus  : 

As  httle  as  man  will  ever  be  without  religion  will  he  be  with- 
out Christ.  For  to  think  to  have  religion  without  Christ  were  no 
less  ahsurd  than  to  think  to  enjoy  poetry  irrespective  of  Homer, 
Shakespeare,  and  their  kind.  And  this  Christ,  so  far  as  he  is 
inseparable  from  the  highest  forms  of  religion,  is  an  historical, 
not  a  mythical,  person  ;  a  real  individual,  no  mere  symbol. 

Such  concessions,  while  indicating  the  wonderful 
veneration  all  men  have  for  the  Master,  would  not 
satisfy  the  public,  and  the  appearance  of  the  '*  Lcbcn 
Jesu  "  became  the  signal  for  controversy  along  the  lines 
indicated  by  its  author,  and  for  book  after  book  pro- 
fessedly devoted  to  the  study  of  our  Lord's  earthly  life. 
They  bore  on  their  title-pages  the  names  of  Steudel, 
Eschenmayer,  Wolfgang  Menzel,  Hengstenberg,  Ull- 
mann,  Tholuck,  and  last,  though  not  least,  the  name  of 
Neander,  called  by  some  of  his  disciples  ''  the  last  of 
the  Fathers."     Into  the  merits  of  the  views  developed 


344      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

by  those  writers,  it  is  not  for  me  to  enter.  It  is 
enough  to  know  that  they  traversed  and  retraversed  a 
great  deal  of  ground  and  served  to  deepen  the  impres- 
sion that  Jesus  really  lived,  and  that  the  account  given 
in  the  New  Testament  must  be  taken  as  history,  mira- 
cles and  all,  or  it  is  of  hardly  any  value  whatever. 

The  lull  that  followed  the  conflict  precipitated  by  the 
volume  of  Strauss  was  once  more  disturbed  by  Renan's 
'^  Vie  de  Jesus,''  issued  from  the  Paris  press  in  1863. 
This  brilliant  production  has  been  variously  estimated. 
While  it  has  been  decried  by  many  as  ''  the  most  sacred 
of  all  histories  done  into  a  French  erotic  romance,"  and 
while  it  has  been  denounced  in  unmeasured  terms,  its 
charm  cannot  be  denied.  It  fascinates  and  dazzles; 
and  if  read  in  the  light  of  its  closing  paragraphs,  it 
cannot  fail  to  amaze.     Let  us  recall  these  passages : 

This  sublime  person,  who  each  day  still  presides  over  the  desti- 
nies of  the  world,  we  may  call  divine,  not  in  the  sense  that  Jesus 
absorbed  all  divinity,  or  was  equal  to  it  (to  employ  the  scholastic 
expression),  but  in  this  sense,  that  Jesus  is  that  individual  who 
has  caused  his  species  to  make  the  greatest  advance  toward  the 
divine.  .  .  Whatever  may  be  the  surprises  of  the  future,  Jesus 
will  never  be  surpassed.  His  worship  will  grow  young  without 
ceasing  ;  his  legend  will  call  forth  tears  without  end  ;  his  suffer- 
ings will  melt  the  noblest  hearts  ;  all  ages  will  proclaim  among 
the  sons  of  men,  there  is  none  born  greater  than  Jesus. 

A  beautiful  tribute  truly,  though  it  leaves  much  to  be 
desired  by  those  of  us  who  cannot  explain  the  claims 
and  the  works  of  Jesus  without  going  further.  Never- 
theless, from  Renan,  even  this  is  invested  with  peculiar 
significance,  and  his  book  itself  once  more  stimulated 
the  growth  of  Messianic  biographical  literature. 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  345 

In  1865  appeared  in  England  '^  Ecce  Homo,''  which 
excited  considerable  attention  ;  and  in  1867  Keim's 
great  work,  ''  GescJiicJitc  Jcsic  von  Nazara,''  etc.,  that 
threatened  the  very  foundations  of  faith.  These  books 
have  been  rivaled,  and  in  some  instances,  excelled,  by 
others,  bearing  the  names  of  Weizsacker,  Beyschlag, 
Weisse,  Pressense,  Gess,  Luthardt,  Volkmar,  Lang, 
Grimm,  Dupanloup,  Brougaud,  Didon,  Farrar,  Geikie, 
and  Edersheim.  This  list  is  sadly  imperfect,  but  it  is 
sufficient  to  show  how  large  a  place  this  one  life  occu- 
pies in  the  thought  of  mankind,  and  its  growing  promi- 
nence in  the  development  of  theology. 

It  would  not  receive  the  extraordinary  attention  that 
it  does  were  it  not  for  the  conviction,  which,  if  not 
always  expressed,  is  deeply  felt,  that  on  the  conclusions 
reached  regarding  it  depends  the  future  of  Christian 
doctrine  as  well  as  of  Christian  progress.  By  a  provi- 
dential process, — God  working  through  these  multiplied 
publications, — the  makers  of  theology  are  being  com- 
pelled to  make  the  Saviour,  not  sentimentally,  but  sci- 
entifically, the  center  of  their  systems  ;  and  as  mankind 
opens  its  eyes  to  what  is  taking  place  and  perceives 
that  metaphysical  speculations  are  being  relegated  to 
the  shadowy  background  and  that  Jesus  is  being  brought 
more  and  more  to  the  front,  love  springs  up  in  its 
heart ;  and  as  more  will  be  undertaken  when  inspired  by 
love  for  a  person  than  by  veneration  for  a  creed,  the 
prospects  are  that  the  church  is  just  on  the  eve  of  her 
noblest  enterprises  and  her  grandest  victories.  It  was 
Frederick  Robertson  who  wrote: 

My  whole  heart's  expression  is  "none  but  Christ,"  .  .  to 
feel  as  he  felt  ;  to  judge  the  world  and  to  estimate  the  world's 


34^      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

maxims  as  he  judged  and  estimated.  To  realize  that  is  to  feel 
none  but  Christ  !  But,  then,  in  proportion  as  a  man  does  that, 
he  is  stripping  himself  of  garment  after  garment  till  his  soul  be- 
comes naked  of  that  which  once  seemed  part  of  himself  ;  he  is 
not  only  giving  up  prejudice  after  prejudice,  but  also  renouncing 
sympathy  after  sympathy  with  friends  whose  smile  and  approba- 
tion were  once  his  life.  ^ 

When  theology  itself,  like  the  preacher,  has  ulti- 
mately been  transformed  by  the  love  of  Christ,  and  has 
rid  itself  of  its  traditional  garments,  has  completely 
abandoned  ancient  prejudices,  and  has  determined  to 
fashion  its  judgments  in  harmony  with  his  teachings, 
then  shall  the  church  herself  be  transformed  by  love, 
and  then  her  touch  of  love  shall  transform  the  world. 

When  Raphael  painted  that  glorious  mural  decora- 
tion which  adorns  the  Stanza  del/a  Signatura,  in  the 
Vatican,  and  which  is  inappropriately  named  ''  La  Dis- 
piittty'  he  symbolized  the  high  esteem  in  which  theology 
was  held  by  the  people  of  his  generation.  For  evidently 
it  was  the  genius  of  theology  he  meant  to  portray  when 
he  drew  the  form  of  the  fair  woman  holding  in  her  hand 
the  Gospels,  and  represented  cherubs  holding  up  tablets 
with  the  legend  inscribed,  ''  Divinarinn  Rcrnm  Notitia!' 
— knowledge  of  divine  things, — and  crowded  the  fres- 
coes with  figures  of  our  Lord,  the  patriarchs,  the  apos- 
tles, and  such  leaders  and  thinkers  as  Ambrose,  Augus- 
tine, Bernard,  Aquinas,  Bonaventura,  Peter  Lombard, 
Savonarola,  Dante,  and  Fra  Angclico.'-^  There  is,  how- 
ever, I  fear,  hardly  a  community  now  on  earth,  unless 


1"  Letters,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  154. 

2  See  Principal  Cave,  "Intro,  to  Theology  and  Its  Literature,"  p.  i. 
A  book  I  desire  specially  to  recommend  to  students. 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  347 

it  be  a  university  town,  where  Raphael's  conception 
would  meet  with  any  special  favor.  What  thrilled  and 
moved  the  sixteenth  century  often  fails  to  touch  and 
stir  the  nineteenth.  Theology  ought  to  be  an  excep- 
tion to  this  possibility.  Unhappily,  it  is  not,  and  yet  I 
venture  to  affirm  that  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should 
not  still  be  regarded,  as  it  was  in  the  Middle  Ages,  as 
the  "Queen  of  Sciences."  Not  unworthy  the  consider- 
ation of  those  who  are  unwilling  or  unable  to  recognize 
her  primacy,  are  the  closing  sentences  of  Tyndall's  fa- 
mous ''Belfast  Address,"  1874: 

And  if  unsatisfied,  .  .  the  human  mind,  with  the  yearning  of 
a  pilgrim  for  his  distant  home,  will  turn  to  the  Mystery  from  which 
it  has  emerged,  seeking  so  to  fashion  it  as  to  give  unity  to  thought 
and  faith  ;  so  long  as  this  is  done,  not  only  without  intolerance  or 
bigotry  of  any  kind,  but  with  the  enlightened  recognition  that  ul- 
timate fixity  of  conception  is  here  unattainable,  and  that  each  suc- 
ceeding age  must  be  held  free  to  fashion  the  Mystery  in  accord- 
ance with  its  needs — then,  casting  aside  all  the  restrictions  of  ma- 
terialism, I  would  affirm  this  to  be  a  field  for  the  noblest  exercise 
of  Avhat,  in  contrast  with  knowing  faculties,  may  be  called  the 
creative  faculties  of  man. 

What  the  professor  means  is  simply  that  theology 
outranks  other  sciences.  While  all  others  call  into  exer- 
cise the  knowing  faculties,  the  faculties  that  explore  and 
ascertain  facts,  theology  demands,  in  addition  to  these, 
the  creative  powers  of  the  mind  ;  the  powers  that  are 
able  to  synthesize  and  construct  in  that  most  wonderful 
of  all  domains,  the  spiritual  and  the  supernatural.  Its 
supreme  dignity  is  not  bounded  by  the  exalted  character 
of  its  labors,  but  is  further  shown,  and  principally,  in  the 
sublime  end  it  is  destined  to  serve.  Theology  is  not 
an  end  in  itself.     When  this  is  overlooked,  and  when 


34S      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

learned  men  theorize  about  sacred  things  with  no  other 
object  than  to  create  a  system,  their  endeavors  will 
awaken  no  special  interest,  and  will  prove  only  profitless 
and  valueless.  This  doubtless  explains  why  so  much 
that  has  been  written  on  this  subject  has  been  con- 
temptuously ignored,  or  has  been  treated,  even  by  stu- 
dents, with  hardly  disguised  impatience.  Theology  at 
its  best,  while  a  system,  is  a  system  that  helps  mankind 
to  ''think  the  thought  of  God  after  him  "  ;  that  brings 
humanity  into  fellowship  with  the  Divine  ;  that  checks 
and  suppresses  disordered  fancies  ;  that  obliterates  su- 
perstition and  develops  the  life  of  fellowship  with  all 
things  true,  beautiful,  and  good,  whether  in  earth  or 
heaven.  Judged,  therefore,  by  its  aim,  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  it  surpasses  in  grandeur  every  other 
department  of  inquiry. 

The  Sistine  Chapel,  with  its  memories  of  Bacio  Pin- 
telli,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  places  the  stranger 
can  visit  in  ancient  Rome.  Around  the  walls  are  mas- 
terpieces of  sacred  art,  descriptive  of  the  lives  of  Moses 
and  of  Christ,  and  bearing  the  honored  names  of  Peru- 
gino,  Botticelli,  Cosimo  Rosselli,  Ghirlandajo,  and  Sal- 
viati.  The  ceiling  was  immortalized  by  the  brush  of 
Michael  Angelo,  which  has  blended  with  consummate 
genius,  and  executed  with  masterly  effect  scenes  from 
the  creative  period  of  the  world,  and  figures  of  prophets 
and  sibyls — recalling  Thomas  of  Celano's  most  singu- 
lar verse  : 

Dies  ircr,  dies  ilia, 

Solvet  scEclinn  in  favilla. 

Teste  David  cum  Sibylla. 

The  chapel  as  it  is  to-day  is  not  as  it  has  been  at  former 


THE    REGENERATION    AND    DEVELOPMENT  349 

periods.  Once  the  upper  walls  were  hung  around  with 
cartoons  by  Raphael,  and  once,  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
room,  were  three  pictures  by  Perugino.  These  pictures 
were  effaced  by  the  orders  of  Clement  VII.  to  make 
room  for  Michael  Angelo's  great  fresco  of  "  The  Last 
Judgment."  Moreover,  many  of  the  original  pictures 
have  been  retouched  and  cleaned,  and  the  whole  has 
been  carefully  brought  to  its  present  state  of  perfection  ; 
but  magnificent  as  the  chapel  is,  the  purpose  it  is  de- 
signed to  serve  excels  in  grandeur  the  wondrous  splen- 
dor and  harmony  of  its  art.  There  worship  finds  its 
most  elaborate  if  not  its  most  spiritual  expression,  and 
there,  on  Passion  Week,  the  Miserere  its  most  solemn  if 
not  its  most  heartfelt  interpretation.  The  chapel  lends 
itself  to  this  sublime  adoration  and  to  the  humble  con- 
fession of  this  faith  ;  and  in  proportion  as  they  are  sin- 
cere and  lowly,  they  transcend  in  value  its  most  won- 
derful frescoes. 

Theology,  rightly  apprehended,  is  the  Sistine  Chapel 
of  the  soul.  It  builds,  it  constructs,  it  illuminates.  It 
reproduces  the  great  events  and  gracious  disclosures  of 
holy  writ,  and  combines  and  arranges  them,  from  the 
transcendent  acts  of  creation  to  the  final  catastrophe  of 
the  judgment,  with  the  Divine  Passion  as  the  central 
and  unifying  development  of  history.  While  retaining 
its  original  outlines,  like  the  chapel  it  has  experienced 
changes,  some  original  conceptions  having  given  place 
to  others,  and  the  others  being  retouched  by  later  hands 
and  also  modified  by  more  recent  additions.  It  likewise 
displays  genius  of  the  highest  order  and  the  most  ex- 
alted devotion  of  the  noblest  gifts  to  the  honor  of  God  ; 
but  great  as  it  is  in  itself,  greater  is  it  in  its  contem- 


350      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

plated  purpose.  Beneath  its  roof,  within  its  walls,  and 
in  the  presence  of  its  intellectual  triumphs,  the  mind  of 
man  is  illumined  and  stimulated,  his  emotions  deepened 
and  enlarged,  his  conscience  purified  and  emancipated, 
his  hopes  strengthened  and  beautified,  his  entire  spir- 
itual being  impelled  upward  toward  eternal  fellowship 
with  the  Supreme  Spirit. 

This,  at  least,  is  the  end  theology  seeks  to  accomplish, 
and  failing  this,  theology  reveals  its  own  immaturity  and 
imperfection. 


VIII 


THE  ISMS  AND  SCHISMS 


I  find  no  hint  throughout  the  universe 

Of  good  or  ill,  of  blessing  or  of  curse  ; 

I  find  alone,  necessity  supreme  : 

The  world  rolls  round  forever  like  a  mill. 

It  grinds  out  death  and  life,  and  good  and  ill  ; 

It  has  no  purpose,  heart,  or  mind,  or  will. 

—  Thompson. 

Perished  is  the  great  delusion 
That  I  thought  would  ne'er  have  left  me— perished  ! 
Naught  now  is  left  of  all  these  dear  deceits  ; 
Desire  is  dead,  and  not  a  hope  remains. 
Rest  then  forever.     Thou  hast  throbbed  enough  ; 
Nothing  here  is  worth  such  palpitations. 
Our  life  is  valueless,  for  it  consists 
Of  naught  but  emmi,  bitterness,  and  pain. 
The  world  of  clay  deserveth  not  a  sigh. 
Now  calm  thyself :  conceive  thy  last  despair, 
And  wait  for  death,  the  only  gift  of  Fate. 

— Leopardi. 


VIII 

THE    FAILURE    OF     MODERN     SUBSTITUTES     FOR    THE     AN- 
CIENT   FAITH 

As  the  nineteenth  c'entury,  from  year  to  year,  has 
pursued  its  toilsome  way,  it  has  occasionally  been  called 
on  to  rejoice  or  to  mourn  over  the  manifest  decay  and 
imminent  demise  of  the  Christian  faith.  The  public 
has  been  assured  by  brilliant  men  that  its  dissolution 
has  gone  so  far  as  to  render  recovery  impossible  ;  and 
among  them  some  have  affirmed  that  it  is  already  dead, 
and  only  awaits  the  decency  of  reasonable  delay  before 
the  rites  of  sepulture  are  fittingly  observed.  The  esti- 
mate David  Strauss  places  on  the  Christ  of  St.  John, 
has  within  a  decade  been  applied  to  Christianity  itself, 
and  represents  to-day  the  sentiment  of  a  large  class  of 
despondent  inquirers  :  *'  It  is  a  reminiscence  from  long 
forgotten  days,  as  it  were  the  light  of  a  distant  star, 
which,  while  the  body  whence  it  came  was  extinguished 
years  ago,  still  meets  the  eye."  No  wonder  that  he 
concludes  :  "  The  only  worship — one  may  lament  or 
praise,  but  cannot  deny  it — the  only  worship  which, 
from  the  religious  ruins  of  the  past  remains  to  the  cul- 
tured mind  of  to-day,  is  the  worship  of  genius."  Other 
writers  have  intimated  that  we  are  living  in  the  after- 
glow of  the  Christian  dispensation,  a  pathetic  and 
ominous  figure  of  speech  ;  for  the  after-glow  can  only 
be  followed  by  night,  a  night,  I  fear,  without  stars. 

X  353 


354      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

But  we  are  exhorted  not  to  be  depressed,  and  not  for 
a  moment  to  suppose  this  inevitable  loss  irreparable. 
Various  substitutes  for  the  ancient  Faith  have  been 
brought  forward,  and  have  been  defended  with  extra- 
ordinary ingenuity,  if  not  with  the  most  edifying  logic. 
These  substitutes  are  not  always  labeled  or  announced 
as  religious  ;  but  they  are  all  set  forth  as  equivalents, 
as  compensations  for  what  they  supersede,  and  as  the 
necessary  successors  of  a  discredited  superstition.  In 
France  Positivism  has  been  presented  as  the  only  scien- 
tific religion,  and  as  the  one  destined  to  govern  the  en- 
lightened future.  In  Germany  Pessimism  has  been  ad- 
vocated as  the  only  sensible  philosophic  exchange  for 
an  optimistic  gospel.  In  England  Agnosticism  and 
varying  forms  of  Naturalism  have  been  received  with 
the  most  distinguished  marks  of  favor  ;  while  here  in 
America  we  have  invented  Mormonism  and  Spiritual- 
ism, to  say  nothing  of  several  additional  aberrant  move- 
ments, which  are  confidently  appraised  by  their  friends  as 
being  of  higher  value  than  any  of  their  rivals. 

The  dreary  attempts  of  the  human  mind  during  the 
past  century  to  manufacture  a  new  religion  make  one 
of  the  most  pathetic  pages  in  modern  history.  They 
indicate  that  Christianity,  as  it  has  been  thought  out 
and  acted  out  before  the  world,  has  given  rise  to  serious 
dissatisfaction.  This  may  be  admitted  without  sharing 
in  the  doubts  of  its  divine  origin,  and  without  partici- 
pating in  the  apprehensions  of  its  speedy  overthrow, 
which  have  agitated  not  a  few  persons  on  both  sides  of 
the  Atlantic.  The  ancient  P'^aith  may  be  from  heaven, 
even  though  her  white  garments  have  been  somewhat 
besmirched  by  her  passage  through  the  earth  ;  and  she 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  355 

may  be  destined  to  immortality  even  though  she  may 
seem  to  be  weary  with  her  pilgrimage,  and  though  cyn- 
ical critics  may  imagine  that  she  "  lags  superfluous  on 
the  scene."  But  the  restlessness  of  society,  and  the 
vague  feeling  that  the  accepted  religion  does  not  fully 
meet  the  hunger  of  the  soul,  may  well  be  taken  by  its 
friends  as  a  sign  that  indifference  on  their  part  to  its 
ethical  and  intellectual  quality  must  end  disastrously. 
The  warning,  I  am  persuaded,  has  not  been  without 
effect,  and  I  can  only  hope  that  it  may,  with  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  epoch,  be  more  seriously  pondered.  But 
the  endeavors  to  provide  a  substitute  for  Christianity 
when  it  shall  finally  disappear,  are  also  expressively  sug- 
gestive of  the  hold  religion  has  on  the  entire  human 
family.  The  possibility  of  its  extinction  is  rarely  con- 
templated. Its  existence  in  some  form  is  taken  for 
granted  and  assumed  as  indispensable.  The  contro- 
versy is  not  with  the  thing  itself,  but  with  its  form ;  not 
with  the  kerugma^  but  with  the  dogma.  If  one  cult 
is  to  cease,  it  is  only  that  another  cult  may  begin. 
When  paganism  gave  way  it  was  that  Christianity  might 
take  its  place  ;  and  if  Christianity  vanishes  it  will  be 
only  that  something  in  advance  and  regarded  as  its  su- 
perior, say,  for  instance,  the  Religion  of  Humanity,  may 
succeed  to  its  functions  and  mission.  Making  all  allow- 
ance for  many  and  distinguished  exceptions,  neverthe- 
less, the  race  of  man  has  never  been  reconciled  to  the 
idea  that  it  has  no  relationships  with  unseen  worlds,  or 
has  been  finally  disowned  by  the  All-Father,  or  has  in 
some  home  beyond  "the  sunset  and  the  stars  "  no  ulti- 
mate and  eternal  dwelling-place.      Man  as  man,  there- 

1  KiJpuvMa — the  proclamation. 


356      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

fore,  *'  feels  after  God,"  peers  into  the  abyss  of  mystery; 
and  in  his  tinkering,  repairing,  remodeUng,  or  attempt- 
ing to  make  an  out-and-out  new  faith,  is  disclosing  his 
deepest  longing  and  his  determination  not  to  be  deprived 
and  dispossessed  of  religion,  even  though  an  ancient 
historic  cult  may  perish. 

But  how  about  the  substitutes  proposed  ?  Are  they 
more  intelligible,  more  promising,  more  satisfying  than 
the  Christianity  they  have  undertaken  to  dethrone  ? 
What  is  their  value  to  society  ?  Have  they  furnished 
unmistakable  signs  of  fitness  to  meet  the  growing  needs 
of  the  age,  and  to  deal  adequately  with  the  permanent 
longings  of  the  soul  ?  Are  they  able  to  console  in 
times  of  trouble,  and  to  quicken  in  seasons  of  spiritual 
apathy,  and  to  inspire  in  hours  of  weariness  and  trial  ? 
Are  their  fundamental  principles  more  reasonable  than 
those  of  the  gospel  ?  Are  their  motives  to  duty  higher, 
their  ideals  nobler,  their  sympathies  broader,  and  their 
hopes  clearer  and  better  authenticated  ?  What  have 
they  to  show  for  themselves  ?  What  lives  have  they 
regenerated  and  reinstated  ?  What  griefs  have  they 
assuaged  ?  What  reprobates  have  they  reclaimed  ? 
What  problems  have  they  solved,  and  what  solitary  ray 
of  light  have  they  shed  on  the  troubled  sea  of  exist- 
ence ?  If  they  bring  a  more  rational  and  comprehensive 
view  of  the  universe  than  is  given  in  the  Bible  ;  if  they 
speak  with  greater  distinctness  and  assurance  of  a  future 
world  than  the  Gospels  ;  and  if  they  furnish  a  diviner 
conception  of  manhood,  and  a  more  certain  method  of 
winning  the  degraded  and  forlorn  back  to  righteousness 
and  peace  than  are  embodied  in  the  person  and  plan  of 
Jesus  Christ,  their  right  to  attention  and,  perhaps,  to 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  357 

supremacy,  may  properly  be  recognized,  l^etween  them 
and  Christianity  the  question  at  issue  is  mainly  one  of 
comparative  worth. 

Is  any  one  of  them  worthy  to  be  the  successor  of 
Christianity,  assuming  for  the  moment  that  Christianity 
is  to  have  a  successor?  If  judged  by  their  fruits,  intel- 
lectual, spiritual,  moral,  social,  the  answer  must  be  in 
the  negative.  Their  careers  thus  far  have  been  only 
remarkable  for  failures.  They  have  been  fruitful  in 
criticisms,  in  hypotheses,  in  suppositions,  and  specula- 
tions, but  not  in  those  solid  and  definite  convictions 
which  are  indispensable  to  religious  thought  and  life. 
They  have  failed  to  illumine  the  understanding,  to  pu- 
rify the  conscience,  to  stimulate  the  will,  to  strengthen 
the  hope  of  immortality,  and  to  bring  the  creature  into 
close  communication  with  the  Creator.  Nay,  more  than 
this  and  worse  than  this,  they  have  allured  many  minds 
away  from  a  quiet  anchorage  to  cast  them  loose  on  an 
ocean  of  unbelief  where  happiness  and  morality  have 
both  been  shipwrecked.  They  have  disturbed  the  head 
and  distressed  the  heart,  and  they  have  darkened  the 
horizon  of  life  and  driven  many  to  despair.  Considered 
in  the  light  of  what  they  ought  to  have  done  and  could 
not  do,  and  of  what  they  have  done  and  ought  not  to  do, 
their  pretentious  claims  must  be  set  aside  as  almost  sub- 
limely arrogant.  And  instead  of  doubting  from  their 
assumptions  the  continual  supremacy  of  Christianity,  we 
should  infer  from  their  failures  that  the  world  cannot 
dispense  with  its  ministry,  and  that  everything  in  our 
power  should  be  done  to  render  this  ministry  all  that  it 
should  be  in  grace  and  beauty. 

How  vague,   misleading,   and    disappointing,   for    in- 


358      CHRISTIANITY    IX    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

stance,  is  that  liberalism  which  has  come  to  be  regarded 
by  some  cultured  people  as  a  new  and  better  evangel,  or 
as  the  true  version  of  the  sweet  evangel  which  our  Lord 
taught  on  the  hillside  and  in  the  cities  of  Judah.  Lib- 
erality as  a  spirit,  as  an  attitude  of  mind  toward  those 
whose  views  cannot  be  approved,  is  worthy  of  all  com- 
mendation ;  but  as  a  faith,  as  a  religion,  it  is  simply 
meretricious  and  mischievous.  With  Jeremy  Taylor's 
**  Liberty  of  Prophesying  "  we  are  in  hearty  accord,  and 
believe  that  its  principles  should  govern  in  the  inter- 
course of  Christian  parties.  Not  only  should  all  denom- 
inations be  free  from  State  interference  in  proclaiming 
their  opinions,  they  should  also  be  exempt  from  the  in- 
dignities which  bigotry  may  inflict.  While  Jeremy  Taylor 
was  in  dissent  he  was  loyal  to  the  doctrine  of  his  book ; 
but  when  he  and  his  came  into  power  he  was  quite  will- 
ing to  have  the  Presbyterians  restrained  from  preaching. 
And  so  to-day  some  of  God's  children  are  not  always 
faithful  to  the  charity  they  profess.  Their  inconsistency 
cannot  take  the  same  form  as  Jeremy  Taylor's,  for  the 
condition  of  society  renders  that  impossible  ;  but  it  can 
be  as  flagrant  and  as  cruel.  It  may  venture  to  impugn 
motives,  and  to  curse  those  whom  God  hath  not  cursed. 
Or  it  may  refuse  to  recognize  as  our  Lord's  disciples 
those  who  are  theologically  unsound,  and  may  withhold 
the  courtesies  of  pulpit  fellowship  from  clergymen  whose 
ordination  or  doctrines  are  conceived  to  be  by  some  ec- 
clesiastics particularly  unapostolic. 

These  judgments  and  discriminations  are  peculiarly 
irritating,  and  they  are  inimical  to  brotherly  feeling  and 
generous  conduct.  It  is  altogether  disingenuous  to  as- 
sume that  because  an  evangelical  pastor  invites  a  Uni- 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  359 

tarian  minister  or  a  Catholic  priest  into  his  pulpit  he 
thereby  endorses  or  countenances  the  teachings  repre- 
sented by  these  officials.  A  man  does  not  necessarily 
approve  monopolies  and  trusts  when  he  sends  his  chil- 
dren to  colleges  that  have  been  endowed  by  their  profits; 
he  does  not  abate  his  antagonism  to  ''  privately  owned 
and  publicly  corrupting  railroads"  when  he  is  obliged  to 
make  a  convenience  of  them  for  transportation  ;  and  he 
does  not  become  a  party  to  the  ''sweating  system" 
when  he  is  compelled  by  his  poverty  either  to  wear  the 
clothes  it  has  produced  or  to  go  naked.  Jesus  used  the 
Jewish  synagogues,  though  they  were  centers  of  erro- 
neous Bible  expositions ;  traveled  the  Roman  roads, 
although  they  had  been  built  by  heathen  rulers  and  in 
exercise  of  despotic  power  ;  and  held  friendly  relations 
with  Samaritans,  though  they  had  no  dealings  with  his 
own  kindred,  and  could  scarcely  sympathize  with  his 
advanced  spirituality.^  Who  will  charge  him  with  in- 
difference to  the  triumph  of  truth,  or  to  the  wrong  of 
slavery,  or  to  the  purpose  of  God  in  ordaining  Israel 
to  be  his  witness,  because  he  acted  in  this  manner  ? 
Neither  should  it  be  assumed  that  one  denomination 
becomes  responsible  for  the  doctrines  of  another  when 
friendly  intercourse  is  enjoyed,  when  pulpit  ministra- 
tions are  exchanged,  and  when  differing  sects  join  their 
endeavors  on  terms  of  perfect  equality  in  putting  down 
vice  and  crime.  The  most  generous  liberality  should 
be  fostered.  It  is  an  encouragement  to  independent  re- 
search, and  is  indispensable  to  its  successful  prosecu- 
tion. Moreover,  where  it  does  not  exist,  the  genius  of 
Christianity  is  obscured  and  its  influence  is  curtailed. 

^  See  Prof.  Herron's  "  Between  Ccesar  and  Jesus,"  Chap.  II. 


360      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

But  while  liberality  is  of  the  first  importance,  liberal- 
ism, a  very  different  thing,  is  to  be  distrusted  and  dis- 
carded. By  liberalism,  I  mean  the  agnostic  type  of 
religion  that  characterizes  theologies  as  superfluous  or 
superstitious  ;  that  sees  no  difference  in  value  between 
one  dogma  and  another,  and  thinks  none  at  all  to  be  of 
superior  worth  to  any  ;  that  deprecates  formulas  and 
every  kind  of  positive  statement  ;  that  declares  every 
belief  to  be  equally  sound  if  only  held  in  sincerity ;  that 
feels  free  to  use  the  words  of  Christ,  not  according  to 
their  grammatical  sense,  but  according  to  some  specious 
fancy  as  to  what  it  was  fitting  in  him  to  teach  ;  and  that, 
in  fine,  holds  religion  to  be  a  fluid,  sentimental,  emotional 
something  incapable  of  giving  any  rational  account  of 
its  genesis,  its  nature,  and  its  principles.  This  empty, 
creedless  creed  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar 
offspring  of  liberality,  and  they  who  most  loudly  profess 
it  are  somehow  taken  at  their  own  estimate  and  are  ex- 
tolled as  ''  Liberals." 

And  yet,  unhappily,  they  only  too  often  prove  that 
their  liberalism  must  have  proceeded  from  some  other 
source.  They  can  be  as  harsh  in  criticism,  as  intoler- 
ant of  opposition,  as  narrow  in  judgment,  and  as  super- 
cilious in  self-confidence  as  any  of  their  contemporaries; 
and  they  can  occasionally  display  as  much  venom  as  a 
Torquemada,  and  be  more  assured  of  their  own  infalli- 
bility in  their  denials  than  Hildebrand  was  in  his  affir- 
mations. In  the  opinion  of  some  among  them,  every 
one  who  cherishes  real  convictions,  not  contrary  even 
to  their  own, — for  they  have  none, — is  necessarily  a 
bigot,  and  every  one  who  cultivates  clear,  precise,  and 
definite  thought  is  antagonistic  to  advanced  thought — 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  36I 

it  being  manifestly  deducible  from  their  language  that 
absence  oi  thought  on  religious  subjects  is  really  equiva- 
lent to  adviDiced  thought.  While  the  profession  of 
liberalism,  I  fear,  often  deludes  its  enthusiastic  adher- 
ent into  the  highly  gratifying  notion  that  he  is  pre-emi- 
nently liberal,  there  are  many  who  sympathize  with  him 
in  his  conception  of  religion,  who  are  as  generous  as 
the  day  and  as  free  from  taint  of  uncharitable  judg- 
ment as  it  is  possible  for  humanity  to  be.  But  the  fact 
that  this  breadth  of  mind  and  this  sweet  magnanimity 
are  not  uniformly  distinguishing  features  of  liberalism, 
compels  us  by  logic  to  infer  that  liberalism  is  not  the 
product  of  liberality.  It  may  have  originated  in  the 
inability  longer  to  credit  traditional  interpretations  of 
Christianity,  or  in  the  utter  disbelief  in  the  historicity 
of  religion,  or  in  agnostic  philosophic  speculations,  but 
not  necessarily  in  liberality.  Let  us  not  confuse  things 
that  differ,  or  deceive  ourselves.  There  has  never 
lived  a  more  pronounced  positivist  in  doctrine  than  St. 
Paul,  and  none  who  ever  penned  a  sublimer  tribute  to 
charity  than  he.^  Men  may  be  dogmatic  in  their  be- 
liefs and  liberal  in  their  spirit  ;  and  they  may  be  liberal 
in  their  beliefs  and  dogmatic  in  their  spirit.  No  one  is, 
therefore,  warranted  in  assuming  that  his  negations  and 
denials  are  born  of  a  larger  and  more  tolerant  thought 
than  the  opinions  and  affirmations  of  his  neighbor. 
Liberality  may  or  may  not  have  been  in  his  heart  when 
he  shaped  his  religious  views  ;  but  the  party  shibboleth 
which  he  pronounces  so  glibly  conveys  no  assurance  on 
this  point. 

Liberalism  is  the  child  of  doubt,  not  of  charity ;  it  is 

^  I  Cor.  13,  and  compare  with  Rom.  5,  6. 


362      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  offspring  of  despair,  not  of  hope.  It  is  a  death, 
nut  a  resurrection.  And  as  it  is  in  its  sources,  so  is  it 
in  its  effects.  Whence  it  proceeds  thither  does  it 
return  ;  from  doubt  to  doubt,  from  death  to  death.  To 
the  state  of  mind  it  engenders  prayer  is  not  supphca- 
tion ;  and  to  it  there  is  no  redemption,  no  salvation, 
no  real  resurrection  of  Christ,  and  no  deep  incentive 
to  deep  spirituality  or  to  profound  religious  feeling. 
An  illustration  of  what  it  is  at  its  best  and  highest  is 
furnished  in  the  writings  of  Matthew  Arnold.^  This 
author  sets  forth  an  ethical  idealism,  similar  to  the 
idealism  of  Fichte,  as  a  substitute  for  the  ancient 
faith.  He  excludes  belief  in  supernatural  beings  and 
miraculous  deeds,  and  practically  rejects  everything 
from  the  content  of  Christianity  except  its  ethics.  Its 
history  by  his  method  becomes  poetry,  and  its  seem- 
ingly sober  doctrine  only  rhetorical  rapture.  His 
fundamental  thought  is  that  religion  has  to  do  with 
conduct  ;  that  it  is  ethical ;  and  yet  not  as  a  series  of 
cold,  abstract  regulations,  but  as  "  heightened,  enkindled, 
lit  up  by  feeling."  In  other  words,  according  to  his 
concise  formula  :  '*  It  is  morality  touched  by  emotion." 
The  basis  of  this  system  is  not  ''  the  intelligent  Gov- 
ernor of  the  universe,"  as  defined  by  theology,  but 
''  the  Eternal,  not  ourselves,  which  makes  for  righteous- 
ness." He  concedes  that  the  conversion  of  this  Power 
by  devout  imagination  into  a  person  can  do  no  harm, 
provided  we  treat  this  personification  as  a  mere  figure 
of  speech.  For  his  conception  he  pleads  that  it  is  the 
only  one  verifiable  by  experience,  and  that  all  the  others 
are  the  products  of  metaphysics.      But  this  contention 

1  "Literature  and  Dogma,"  and  "  God  and  the  Bible." 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  363 

cannot  be  made  good,  for  if  there  is  anything  trans- 
parently clear  it  is  that  this  *'  Eternal  Power  not  our- 
selves," is  at  the  best  only  a  philosophical  abstraction. 
He  himself  proves  this  by  the  contradictory  ways  in 
which  he  describes  it  ;  speaking  of  it  at  one  time  as  a 
real,  efficient  power  for  which  we  feel  deep  reverence, 
and  at  another  as  a  kind  of  law,  such  as  the  law  of 
gravitation  or  the  law  of  spiritual  beauty.  His  whole 
theory  is  metaphysical  from  start  to  finish.  It  does  not 
present  an  idea  that  has  been  verified  by  experience, 
neither  does  it  present  one  that  is  easier  of  comprehen- 
sion than  that  of  the  All-Father,  nor  one  that  is  better 
fitted  to  develop  the  '*  emotion"  indispensable  to  relig- 
ious conduct. 

Let  us  concede  that  ''  ethics  "  constitute  the  real  aim 
and  expression  of  the  religious  life,  yet  that  does  not 
explain  how  this  "  Power  not  ourselves  makes  for 
righteousness."  What  intelligible  connection  is  there 
between  the  two  .^  If  the  "Power"  makes  for  right- 
eousness, as  the  law  of  gravitation  makes  for  physical 
attraction,  then  we  ought  necessarily  to  be  righteous  ; 
and  if  it  only  does  so  as  a  Person  influencing  persons, 
then,  however  it  is  named,  there  is  no  perceptible  dif- 
ference between  it  and  the  Deity  of  evangelical  theology. 
P'or  the  sake  of  the  "  emotion  "  which,  according  to 
Mr.  Arnold,  must  kindle  the  morality,  there  ought  to 
be  some  adequate  source.  Such  a  source  is  not  fur- 
nished by  colorless  and  abstruse  conceptions  that  may 
mean  different  things  to  different  minds.  These  never 
have  had  and  never  can  have  potency  enough  to  arrest 
the  wrong-doer  in  his  evil  course,  and  awaken  conscience 
from   its   lethargic   slumber.     What   effect   would  this 


364      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

"  Power,  not  ourselves,"  have  on  a  company  of  crimi- 
nals, or  of  gamblers,  or  of  outcasts,  or  even  of  repu- 
table transgressors,  if  an  effort  were  being  made  to 
reform  their  lives  ?  The  question  hardly  needs  an 
answer.  No  sane  practical  worker  would  for  a  moment 
rely  on  this  metaphysical  notion  to  move  the  guilty  to 
repentance,  or  to  bring  back  the  wanderer  to  the  paths 
of  duty.  And  that  which  is  inadequate  to  accomplish 
what  it  undertakes  to  do,  demonstrates  scientifically 
that  it  has  no  claim  to  serious  and  respectful  attention. 
But  to  this  must  be  added  that  Mr.  Arnold's  definition 
of  religion  is  as  unsatisfactory  as  his  conception  of  its 
source.  While  religion  comprehends  morality,  it  means 
more  than  morality.  This  has  been  very  conclusively 
shown  by  Friedrich  Paulsen,  professor  of  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Berlin.  In  an  important  and  ex- 
haustive work  just  issued,'  he  maintains  that  Christian- 
ity is  not  mere  morality,  and  contrasts  its  supreme  ideal 
with  that  of  the  Greeks:  "The  Greeks  regarded  the 
perfect  development  of  the  natural  powers  of  man  as 
the  great  aim  of  life.  Christianity,  on  the  other  hand, 
clearly  and  consciously  sets  up  the  opposite  as  the  goal 
of  life  ;  the  death  of  the  material,  and  the  resurrection 
of  a  new,  supernatural  man."  The  professor  sees  that 
the  modern  world  is  seeking  to  include  the  two  ideals 
in  a  great  synthesis.  As  I  read  the  New  Testament  I 
find  both  comprehended  in  the  teachings  of  our  Lord. 
Unquestionably  the  Master  said  to  Nicodemus  :  "  Ye 
must  be  born  again,"  and  in  the  interview  generalized 
his  instructions  so  as  to  make  them  applicable  to  human- 
ity without  exception.     Moreover,  throughout  his  min- 

1  "A  System  of  Ethics." 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  365 

istry  we  obtain  a  revelation  of  what  religion  is,  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  narrow  definition  of  liberalism.  It  is 
spiritual  life,  and  life  more  abundant  ;  it  is  spiritual 
worship  ;  it  is  spiritual  fellowship  and  spiritual  service. 
It  is  an  experience  of  eternal  realities  ;  it  is  the  realiza- 
tion of  supernatural  and  eternal  relationships. 

The  only  way  by  which  these  conclusions  can  be 
avoided  is  by  minimizing  the  significance  of  our  Lord's 
words,  a  practice  pursued  by  such  writers  as  Arnold, 
and  followed  by  some  theologians  like  Wendt.  It  will 
surely  be  admitted  that  Jesus  is  an  authority,  the  chief 
authority,  on  this  subject,  and  that  what  he  says  is  en- 
titled to  consideration.  The  disposition,  therefore,  to 
ignore  his  testimony,  or  to  alter  it  to  suit  the  conven- 
ience of  particular  theories,  is  highly  reprehensible. 
What  Doctor  Stalker  in  his  last  book  has  very  vigor- 
ously expressed  in  regard  to  a  special  instance  of  this 
unwarranted  method,  may  be  accepted  as  a  fair  criticism, 
of  all  by  whom  it  has  been  adopted.      He  writes  : 

Wendt  takes  each  saying  of  Christ  by  itself,  and  having  labo- 
riously shown  the  very  least  it  can  possibly  have  meant,  then  as- 
sumes this  to  have  been  the  original  meaning.  But  it  is  often  not 
the  natural  meaning  ;  and  one  gets  tired  of  this  continual  shal- 
lowing of  everything  that  Jesus  said.  The  truth  is,  if  Jesus  meant 
no  more  than  Wendt  makes  him  say,  he  was  the  most  paradoxical 
and  hyperbolical  teacher  that  has  ever  appeared,  and  he  alienated 
his  hearers  by  mystifications,  when  a  few  words  of  common  sense, 
such  as  Wendt  now  speaks  for  him,  would  have  cleared  away  all 
difficulties  and  conciliated  the  minds  of  men.^ 

As  liberalism,  if  it  appeals  to  Christ  at  all,  has  to  do 
so  in  the  very  way  so  justly  condemned  by  Stalker,  it 

1  "The  Christology  of  Jesus." 


366      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

awakens  distrust  in  its  principles.  As,  however,  it 
seems  to  evade  the  real  force  of  our  Lord's  teachings, 
and  as  it  fails  to  furnish  a  satisfactory  conception  of  re- 
ligion, and  provides  no  adequate  means  for  the  realiza- 
tion of  its  conception,  meagre  as  it  is,  liberalism  can 
never  serve  as  a  substitute  for  the  ancient  faith. 

Agnosticism  is  another  of  these  proposed  substitutes 
which,  although  once  exceedingly  popular,  and  still 
favorably  entertained  by  many  cultured  persons,  can 
never  hope  to  displace  the  religion  of  Christ.  Never- 
theless, its  prominence  among  recent  speculations,  and 
the  undeniable  charm  which  it  possesses  for  a  certain 
type  of  mind,  warrant  a  brief  inquiry  into  its  teachings 
and  a  candid  estimate  of  their  worth.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  agnosticism  grew  out  of  the  materialism 
which  was  so  widespread  during  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  has  been  described  by  a  recent 
writer  as  materialism  expressing  itself  in  the  region  of 
intellect.^  The  philosophic  vagaries  of  Feuerbach 
throw  some  light  on  its  origin.  This  celebrated  man 
held  that  religion  is  only  an  idealistic  fiction,  and  that 
the  gods  are  WtinscJnvesen^  i.  e.,  the  desires  of  the  heart 
made  objectively  real  through  the  imagination.  Christ, 
miracles,  heaven,  are  purely  subjective  fancies  and 
wishes  without  actual  and  corresponding  reality.  He 
maintained  that  only  what  is  cognizable  by  the  senses 
is  real,  and  what  we  call  the  spiritual  is  only  the  effect 
of  the  sensible.  Therefore,  while  he  had  admired  the 
Hegelian  school  for  a  time,  in  these  sentiments  he  re- 
veals his  complete  conversion  to  materialism.  His  doc- 
trine is   summed  up  in   his  saying  :  ''  Man  is  what  he 

^  ^^  Sursum  Corda.'''' 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  36/ 

eats^  From  this  point  of  view  religion  is  merely  an 
illusion,  a  self-deception,  an  echo  of  man's  own  voice, 
concerning  which  he  can  know  nothing,  and  about 
which  there  is  nothing  to  know.  In  its  main  features 
it  agrees  with  what  Pliny  said  a  class  of  teachers  taught 
in  his  day,  '*  that  all  religion  is  the  offspring  of  neces- 
sity, weakness,  and  fear,"  adding,  ''  What  God  is,  if  in 
truth  he  be  anything  distinct  from  the  world,  it  is  be- 
yond the  compass  of  man's  understanding  to  know." 

Only  a  few  years  ago  this  materialistic  philosophy 
was  seemingly  triumphant,  and  pronounced  its  neces- 
sary negations  in  the  tones  of  greatest  assurance.  Said 
one  writer  :  ''  The  government  of  the  world  must  not 
be  considered  as  determined  by  an  extra-mundane  in- 
telligence, but  by  one  immanent  in  the  cosmical  forces 
and  their  relations."  Another  wrote :  ''  Science  has 
gradually  taken  all  the  positions  of  the  childish  belief 
of  the  peoples,  it  has  snatched  thunder  and  lightning 
from  the  hands  of  the  gods.  The  stupendous  powers 
of  the  Titans  of  the  olden  times  have  been  grasped  by 
the  fingers  of  men."  The  dire  consequences  of  this 
practical  atheism,  as  they  appeared  in  practical  life, 
when  such  opinions  as  these  were  somewhat  common 
in  literature,  are  graphically  described  by  Percy  Greg. 
He  says  : 

Go  into  a  London  club,  listen  to  the  talk  of  men  of  the  world 
on  moral  questions,  and  see  how  little  of  earnest  faith  in  any 
moral  law  is  left  among  them.  .  .  Now-a-days  even  conservative 
society  rather  patronizes  religion  than  believes  in  it,  and  a  sim- 
ilar skepticism  prevails  on  points  of  morality.  A  man  may  to- 
day affirm  that  marriage  is  an  absurdity,  may  challenge  the  first 
principles  of  social  order,  might  have  defended  murder  till  the 
assassinations  committed  by  Land  Leagues  and  Nihilists  fright- 


368      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ened  society  into  a  passion  on  that  subject,  may  argue  against 
any  of  the  ten  commandments,  and  will  be  answered  on  equal 
terms.  ^ 

Agnosticism,  therefore,  at  this  stage  of  its  history 
was  a  species  of  nescience  begotten  of  materiaUsm  and 
tending  toward  ethical  confusion.  But  a  change  has 
taken  place.  P^ew  scientific  leaders  in  our  day  would 
care  to  affirm,  with  Tyndall,  that  matter  contains  *'the 
promise  and  potency"  of  all  life;  and  fewer  still  would 
undertake,  with  Biichner,  to  manufacture  a  universe  out 
of  '' matter  and  force."  Professor  Huxley,  toward  the 
end  of  his  career,  held  materialism  to  be  a  ^'  grave, 
philosophic  error,"  and  declared  that  if  he  were  com- 
pelled to  choose  between  materialism  and  idealism  he 
would  choose  the  latter.  But  though  the  ground  be- 
neath it  has  been  shifting,  agnosticism,  while  it  has  de- 
clined, has  not  finally  disappeared.  The  new  idealism, 
however,  in  my  opinion,  is  fatal  to  its  prolonged  exist- 
ence. Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  a  generation  ago  contended 
that  idealism,  were  it  proven,  would  render  evolution 
inconceivable.  Into  the  merit  of  this  issue  I  shall  not 
enter ;  but  whether  his  inference  is  warranted  or  not, 
it  is  certain  that  if  idealism  is  true,  agnosticism  is  false. 
The  former  always  carries  with  it  and  implies  the  reality 
of  the  Divine  existence.  I  am  not  restricting  this  con- 
sciousness to  the  idealist ;  but  he  would  be  a  contradic- 
tion were  he  devoid  of  its  faithful  witness.  The  noblest 
thinkers  of  our  race,  Socrates,  Plato,  Kant,  Berkeley, 
Descartes,  Fichte,  Cousin,  Pascal,  Wordsworth,  Brown- 
ing, and  others,  however  their  philosophies  may  vary, 
agree  in  tracing  to  something  native  to  man  his  seem- 
1  "Without  God." 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  369 

ingly  instinctive  belief  in  the  Supreme  Being.      On  this 
point  Dean  Mansel  writes  in  these  terms  : 

Those  who  lay  exclusive  stress  on  the  proof  of  the  existence  of 
God  from  the  marks  of  design  in  the  world,  or  from  the  necessity 
of  supposing  a  first  cause  for  all  phenomena,  overlook  the  fact 
that  man  learns  to  pray  before  he  learns  to  reason  ;  that  he  feels 
within  him  the  consciousness  of  a  Supreme  Being  and  the  instinct 
of  worship,  before  he  can  argue  from  effects  to  causes,  or  estimate 
the  traces  of  wisdom  and  benevolence  scattered  throughout  the 
creation.  ^ 

And  Huxley  himself  admitted  the  trustworthiness  of 
consciousness,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  declare  that 
it  was  the  ultimate  certainty,  and  the  existence  of  matter 
only  "3.  highly  probable  hypothesis."^  It  is  not  my 
business  to  reconcile  this  statement  with  others  made 
by  the  eminent  scientist.  His  admission  must  be  taken 
as  a  tribute  to  the  veraciousness  of  consciousness,  and, 
consequently,  as  confirming  Dean  Hansel's  position. 
And  if  consciousness  is  the  "ultimate  certainty,"  and 
materialism  is  being  superseded  by  idealism,  then,  un- 
less man  develops  into  the  most  irrational  of  creatures, 
he  will  not  keep  on  denying  in  his  philosophic  creed 
what  is  affirmed  by  his  spiritual  nature.  So  long  as 
materialism  maintained  its  supremacy,  agnosticism  was 
logical  and  inevitable  ;  but  now  that  it  is  being  rapidly 
discredited  this  "  creed  of  nothingness "  necessarily 
finds  it  more  and  more  difficult  to  preserve  its  hold  on 
the  human  mind. 

But  though  they  are  thus  genetically  related  and  their 
destiny  closely  interwoven.  Professor  Huxley,  in  his 
definition  of  agnosticism,  does  not  connect  it  with  any 

^  "  Limits  of  Religious  Thought."      ^  "Science  and  Morals  :  IX." 

Y 


3/0      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

philosophic  system  whatever.      This  is  his   explanation 
of  its  meaning  : 

Agnosticism  is  of  the  essence  of  science,  whether  ancient  or 
modern.  It  simply  means  that  a  man  shall  not  say  he  knows  or 
believes  that  which  he  has  no  scientific  grounds  for  professing  to 
know  or  believe.  .  .  Agnosticism  say3  that  we  know  nothing  of 
what  may  be  beyond  phenomena. 

Hence  it  was  that  Darwin  represented  his  own  re- 
ligious position  in  its  final  stage  in  this  manner  :  "  The 
mystery  of  the  beginning  of  all  things  is  insoluble  by 
us  ;  and  I,  for  one,  must  be  content  to  remain  an  ag- 
nostic." It  is  not,  therefore,  a  method  of  inquiry,  or  a 
passing  phase  of  mental  experience,  neither  is  it  the 
thdtige  skepsis  of  Goethe,  which  aims  at  conquering  it- 
self ;  but  rather  a  fixed  state  of  intellectual  insolvency 
and  of  irremediable  ignorance.  Were  it  only  a  recru- 
descence of  the  critical  skeptical  spirit,  which  St.  Simon 
set  forth  as  constantly  alternating  with  the  spirit  of  con- 
viction and  faith  in  the  world's  history,  it  would  not  be 
so  unutterably  blank  and  hopeless.  These  two  have 
appeared  and  reappeared  from  the  beginning,  dividing 
the  attention  of  mankind.  At  one  time  the  first  re- 
vealed itself  in  the  Greek  sophists  whose  destructive 
analysis  was  counteracted  by  the  moral  synthesis  of 
Socrates ;  then  the  same  incredulity  set  the  augurs 
laughing  over  their  sacrifices  at  Rome,  but  was  effect- 
ually arrested  by  the  moral  earnestness  of  Christianity. 
Again  the  first  spirit  incarnated  itself  in  Hume  and 
Gibbon,  while  the  second  once  more  revived  in  the  fiery 
devotion  of  Methodism. 

If  agnosticism  represented  only  a  similar  return  of 
doubt,  the  temporary  ebbing  of  faith's  floods,  its  presence 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  371 

among  us  would  occasion  neither  excessive  surprise  nor 
inconsolable  sadness.  We  would  simply  wait  for  the 
reaction,  and  be  at  peace.  But  it  means  much  more 
than  this.  It  denotes  a  permanent  and  impassable  bar- 
rier, a  natural  and  insuperable  impediment,  which  the 
mind  cannot  traverse  in  search  of  light,  and  through 
which  and  over  which  the  light  cannot  find  entrance 
into  the  mind.  By  it  a  circle  is  drawn  within  whose  nar- 
row boundaries  knowledge  is  said  to  be  attainable,  while 
beyond  all  is — what  .-*  Speculations,  visions,  dreams,  un- 
certainties— ^ anything  but  knowledge.  But  by  the  au- 
thority of  what  new  infallibility  has  any  man  the  right 
to  say  that,  while  through  physical  phenomena  we  may 
rise  to  the  conception  of  law,  we  have  no  reason  to  rely 
on  spiritual  phenomena  when  they  lead  us  upward  to 
God  ?  The  reality  of  matter  is  more  in  dispute  to-day 
than  the  reality  of  spirit,^  and  yet  we  are  urged  to  rely 
exclusively  on  what  we  imagine  is  disclosed  by  the 
former.  I  repeat  ''imagine,"  for  if  the  operations  of 
the  mind  by  which  all  things,  physical  as  well  as  spir- 
itual, are  determined,  cannot  be  depended  on,  how  dare 
we  trust  its  interpretations  of  the  material  ?  Thomas 
Bailey  Saunders  has  developed  this  idea  very  success- 
fully and  has  clearly  shown  that  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  agnosticism  "  applied  to  the  foundations  of 
science  would  make  science  impossible."  That  is,  it 
would  consign  all  that  we  think  we  know  of  the  natural 
world  to  the  same  region  of  imagination  in  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  agnostic,  dwell  all  of  our  religious  ideals, 
hopes,  and  fears. 

There  is  no  room  in  such  a  system  for  anything  like 

^  See  "Naturalism  and  Agnosticism,"  Ward. 


372      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

religion.  The  hush,  the  awe,  which  Herbert  Spencer 
assumes  to  be  felt  by  humanity  in  the  presence  of  the 
inscrutable  mystery  of  existence,  may,  by  a  kind  of 
poetic  license,  be  called  the  worship  of  the  Unknowable  ; 
but  after  all,  it  is  not  very  discernible,  the  average  man 
not  being  given  to  awe,  and  fails  entirely  to  develop 
those  feelings  of  love  and  faith,  with  the  sense  of  per- 
sonal fellowship,  inseparable  from  real  worship.  Ag- 
nosticism would  revive  the  worship  of  the  ignorant 
savage,  and  seemingly  cannot  conceive  of  anything 
different  from  his  trembling  wonder,  unless  it  be  the 
untrembling  wonder  and  amazement  of  cultured  and 
civilized  man.  But  as  it  cannot  make  for  true  devout- 
ness,  neither  can  it  advance  the  interests  of  morality. 
In  making  this  statement  I  have  no  intention  to  reflect 
on  the  motives  or  character  of  its  supporters,  for  I 
know,  as  Mr.  Gladstone  said  of  Mill,  the  agnostic  may 
be  *'the  saint  of  rationalism."  I  have  in  view  solely  the 
logical  bearing  of  the  theory  under  examination.  Ag- 
nosticism has  been  likened  to  Mephistopheles  when  he 
says  to  Faust:  ''I  am  the  spirit  that  denies."  It  de- 
nies the  divine  origin  of  the  moral  law;  it  denies  that 
God  has  revealed  to  man  the  way  of  duty ;  and  it  de- 
nies to  conscience  the  very  qualities  which  are  neces- 
sary to  its  authority  as  a  rule  of  conduct.  Mr.  Saun- 
ders writes : 

We  are  all  aware  that  Kant,  while  he  showed  that  the  existence 
of  God,  the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  immortality,  were  ideas  be- 
yond the  reach  of  pure  reason,  nevertheless  recognized  that  prac- 
tical reason  afforded  the  assurance  of  their  truth.  He  found  him- 
self compelled  to  accept  them  as  postulates  necessary  to  the  moral 
consciousness,   and   involved   in  the  fundamental   and  indemon- 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  373 

strable  principle  of  a  categorical  imperative,  or  the  command  so  to 
act  as  that  our  action  may  be  fit  for  law  universal.^ 

Agnosticism  is  irreconcilable  with  this  imperative ;  and 
yet  this  imperative  is  indispensable  to  ethical  supremacy 
in  human  life. 

We  must,  therefore,  abandon  the  very  foundations  of 
duty  or  surrender  agnosticism.  The  chasm  that  divides 
them  is  wide  and  impassable.  No  airy  suspension 
bridge  of  metaphysical  speculation  can  join  them  to- 
gether. The  thought  of  God  explains  the  conscience, 
and  the  existence  of  conscience  demands  and  necessi- 
tates the  existence  of  God.  If  agnosticism  practically 
destroys  the  conscience,  on  the  other  hand,  the  admis- 
sion that  conscience  is,  destroys  agnosticism.  On  this 
point  Doctor  Newman  has  written  in  these  terms  : 

If  we  feel  responsibility,  are  ashamed,  are  frightened,  at  trans- 
gressing the  voice  of  conscience,  this  implies  that  there  is  One  to 
whom  w^e  are  responsible,  before  whom  we  are  ashamed,  whose 
claims  upon  us  we  fear.  .  .  If  the  cause  of  these  emotions  does 
not  belong  to  this  visible  world,  the  object  to  which  man's  per- 
ception is  directed  must  be  supernatural  and  divine  ;  and  thus  the 
phenomena  of  conscience,  as  a  dictate,  avail  to  impress  the  im- 
agination with  the  picture  of  a  Supreme  Governor,  a  Judge,  holy, 
just,  powerful,  all-seeing,  retributive. 

At  the  bar  of  conscience  reason  must  reject  agnosti- 
cism, and  in  this  decisive  manner  dispose  of  its  ambi- 
tious desire  to  usurp  the  place  and  power  of  the  ancient 
faith. 

Through  the  labors  and  writings  of  Auguste  Comte 
(born  in  1797),  there  has  appeared  another  claimant  to 

1  "Quest  of  Faith,"  p.  29. 


374      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  throne  and  honors  of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of 
mankind.  I  refer  to  positivism,  which  has  sufficient 
merit  to  arouse  the  attention  of  thinkers  like  George 
Lewes,  John  Stuart  Mill,  Edward  Caird,  Cotter  Mor- 
rison, and  Professor  Clifford,  among  whom  two  at  least 
became  its  disciples.  The  author  of  this  would-be  cult 
was  a  man  of  undoubted  genius,  whose  contributions  to 
intellectual  progress  were  neither  few  nor  slight.  Her- 
bert Spencer,  who  differed  radically  from  him,  neverthe- 
less pays  this  tribute  to  his  achievements  in  one  special 
department : 

True  or  untrue,  his  system  as  a  whole  has  doubtless  produced 
important  and  salutary  revolutions  of  thought  in  many  minds,  and 
will  doubtless  do  so  in  many  more.  .  .  The  presentation  of  scien- 
tific knowledge  and  method  as  a  whole,  whether  rightly  or  wrongly 
co-ordinated,  cannot  have  failed  greatly  to  widen  the  conception 
of  most  of  his  readers.  And  he  has  done  special  service  by  famil- 
iarizing men  with  the  idea  of  a  social  science  based  on  other 
sciences. 

It  is,  therefore,  with  no  purpose  of  disparaging  his 
great  abilities  that  we  venture  to  bring  his  religious 
theories  to  the  test  of  reason  and  experience.  They 
seem  in  some  degree  to  have  been  influenced  by  the 
potent  sway  of  a  woman's  love.  He  was  devoted  to 
this  woman  and  she  in  her  turn  was  devoted  to  him. 
His  life  was  transformed  by  the  charm  of  her  mind  and 
heart.  *'  He  learned  to  appreciate  the  abiding  and  uni- 
versal influence  of  the  affections.  He  gained  a  new 
glimpse  into  man's  destiny.  He  aspired  to  become  the 
founder  of  a  new  religion,  the  'Religion  of  Humanity.'" 
No  wonder,  then,  that  having  been  taught  in  the  school 
of  a  woman's   sacred   passion   and   self-immolation,  he 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  375 

should  have  undertaken  his  task  ''  with  the  full  assur- 
ance that  happiness,  like  duty,  is  to  be  found  only  in  the 
more  perfect  surrender  of  self  to  the  great  Being,  in 
whom  the  universal  order  is  transfigured,  and  the  wise 
will  strive  ever  to  devote  their  lives  more  truly  to  its 
service.  Man's  prudence  and  energy,  with  all  their  re- 
sources, only  bring  out  more  fully  man's  dependence,  so 
that  they  force  him  to  seek  outside  of  himself  the  sole 
foundations  by  which  he  can  give  stability  to  his  life."  As 
far  as  Comte's  religious  system  breathes  this  spirit  there 
is  little  room  for  criticism.  It  is  essentially  the  spirit  of 
Christianity,  and  in  this  respect,  as  there  is  no  radical 
difference,  so  there  is  no  superiority  of  the  younger  over 
the  elder  cult.  But  when  he  departs  from  this  devout 
mood,  and  when  he  identifies  the  "great  Being"  with 
humanity  as  a  whole,  and  when  he  dismisses  theology  as 
only  a  metaphysical  stage  in  the  progress  of  mankind, 
we  are  compelled  to  part  from  him.  Not  all  of  his  mys- 
tical reveries  in  Catholic  churches,  nor  his  genuine  at- 
tachment to  "The  Divine  Comedy"  and  the  "Imitation 
of  Christ,"  can  suffice  to  obscure  the  dangerous  defects 
of  a  system  which  ignores  the  supernatural,  and  pro- 
claims the  "constancies  of  succession  and  co-existence" 
as  supplying  the  sum -total  of  human  knowledge. 

Edward  Caird  regards  positivism  as  synonymous  with, 
the  movement  commonly  called  the  "  Enlightenment," 
or  AiLfkldrung,  a  term  employed  by  Kant,  and  which  he 
uses  to  denote  "the  advance  of  man  beyond  the  state 
of  voluntary  immaturity."  Of  its  significance  Pro- 
fessor Caird  writes  as  follows  :  "  It  is  called  Aiif kid- 
rung,  or  'Enlightenment,'  because  it  is  opposed  to  every 
kind  of  belief  in  the  spiritual  or  divine  which  identifies 


3/6      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

it  with  the  miraculous,  the  arbitrary,  the  lawless,  or  the 
unintelligible,  because,  so  to  speak,  it  carries  its  candle 
into  every  chamber  of  the  house,  and  insists  on  leaving 
no  dark  corner  imvisited  in  which  ghosts  might  be  sup- 
posed to  lurk."  He  shows  how  this  movement  "has 
developed  a  consciousness  of  law  and  order  in  the  world," 
but  has,  at  the  same  time,  narrowed  '*  man's  intellectual 
horizon  "  ''in  a  way  which  is  fatal  to  religion."  *'  For  the 
enlightenment  not  only  removed  spiritual  reality  from  a 
sphere  to  which  it  did  not  properly  belong,  or  divested 
it  of  a  sensuous  vesture  which  hid  its  true  nature  ;  it 
also  led  to  the  denial  that  there  is  in  human  experience 
any  room  for  spiritual  reality  at  all,  except  as  an  illusion 
of  the  infancy  of  the  individual  or  the  race."  '  Enough 
has  already  been  said  in  these  lectures  to  discredit  this 
fundamental  assumption.  Guizot,  Carlyle,  Caird,  and 
others,  have  shown  that  the  mechanical  and  external 
view  of  the  world  to  which  positivism  is  pledged  cannot 
be  accepted  as  a  perfect  view,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be 
harmonized  with  the  essential  nature  of  religion.  It  is 
curious  to  observe  how  Comte  himself  recognizes  this 
fact,  and  how,  while  founding  his  system  on  it,  he  seeks 
to  escape  from  its  consequences  by  inventing  a  cult 
destitute  of  everything  specifically  religious  except  the 
name. 

He  contends  that  human  thought  has  passed  through 
three  stages:  "The  theological  stage  of  primitive  times, 
the  metaphysical  stage  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  positive 
or  scientific  of  modern  times."  In  this  way  he  disposes 
of  religion  in  the  sense  in  which  the  term  has  been  un- 
derstood for  generations,  by  making  it  but  a  step  in  the 
1  "Evolution  of  Religion,"  Vol.  I.,  Lectures  XL,  XIL 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  377 

history  of  progress,  permanently  left  behind  in  the  fur- 
ther ascent.     But  this  theory  is  untenable.     As  Sabatier 

says  : 

The  three  stages  are  not  successive  but  simultaneous  ;  they  do 
not  correspond  to  three  periods  of  history,  but  to  three  permanent 
needs  of  the  human  soul.  You  find  them  combined  in  various 
degrees  in  antiquity,  in  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle  ;  in  modern 
times  in  Descartes,  Pascal,  Leibnitz,  Kant,  Claude  Bernard,  and 
Pasteur.  The  more  science  progresses  and  becomes  conscious  of 
its  true  method  and  of  its  limits,  the  more  does  it  become  distin- 
guished from  philosophy  and  religion. 

In  all  literature  I  do  not  recall  anything  more  fanciful 
and  visionary  than  Comte's  three  stages  ;  and  there  are 
not  lacking  reasons  for  supposing  that  he  was  not  alto- 
gether satisfied  with  them  himself.  For  after  having 
represented  religion  as  outgrown  and  superseded,  and 
having  predicted  the  extinction  of  the  disposition  to  re- 
ligion in  the  soul,  he  ends  his  career  by  providing  a 
substitute  for  what  he  had  repudiated,  and  for  which, 
according  to  his  scheme,  no  necessity  existed.  In  this 
way  he  deprives  his  original  postulate  of  its  force,  and 
himself  discredits  his  theory  of  the  three  stages. 

And  what  a  wonderful  contrivance  his  new  religion 
is,  clumsily  imitating  the  hierarchical  order  and  sacer- 
dotalism of  Roman  Catholicism.  There  is  a  positivist 
church,  with  its  saints,  relics,  catechism,  and  observ- 
ances, just  like  an  ecclesiastical  organization  with  its 
rites  and  rituals.  And  of  the  faith  to  which  these 
externals  are  to  give  form,  he  himself  writes  in  the 
^^  Politique  Positive  "  .* 

To  constitute  any  true  religious  state  there  must  be  a  concur- 
rence of  two  primary  elements,  the  one  objective  and  intellectual, 


^yS      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  other  subjective  and  moral.  .  .  It  is  requisite  that  our  minds 
should  conceive  a  power  without  us,  so  superior  to  ourselves  as  to 
command  the  complete  submission  of  our  entire  life.  .  .  To  make 
submission  complete,  affection  must  unite  with  respect,  and  this 
combination  of  feelings  is  effected  spontaneously  by  the  sense  of 
gratitude.  The  profound  respect  awakened  by  the  supreme  power 
awakens  also  a  mutual  sentiment  of  benevolence  in  all  who  join  in 
devotion  to  the  same  object.  The  analysis  which  1  finally  choose 
as  the  best  to  express  the  true  series  of  parts  is  that  which  makes 
religion  consist  of  three  essential  elements  :  doctrine,  worship,  and 
government.^ 

There  is  not  much,  if  anything,  to  object  to  in  this 
statement,  and  it  might  be  taken  as  the  prelude  to  an 
avowal  of  orthodoxy.  But,  alas  !  the  sequel  does  not 
carry  out  the  promise.  What  follows  comes  to  us  as  a 
kind  of  anti-climax,  as  a  precipitous  descent  from  the 
sublime  to  a  stage  even  below  the  commonplace.  This 
"  power  without  us,  so  superior  to  ourselves,"  turns  out, 
after  all  this  stately  diction,  to  be  merely  collective  hu- 
manity, "  the  real  author  of  the  benefits  for  which 
thanks  were  formerly  given  to  God,"  ''the  only  one  we 
can  know,  and  therefore  the  only  one  we  can  worship." 
Positivism,  therefore,  is  practically  atheism  and  idolatry 
combined.  It  says,  in  Comte's  own  speech:  "To  minds 
early  familiarized  with  true  philosophical  astronomy,  the 
heavens  declare  no  other  glory  than  that  of  Kepler  and 
Newton,  and  of  all  those  who  have  aided  in  establishing 
her  laws."  Thus  it  robs  the  Creator  of  his  glory  and 
ascribes  it  to  the  creature.     And 

Humanity  is  to  be  worshiped  with  the  ardor  of  inward  devotion, 
and,  if  it  may  be,  with  the  appropriate  splendor  of  a  visible  ritual. 
Man  himself  is  the  rightful,  the  adequate  object  of  his  love,  of  his 

1  Matheson,  "The  Gospel  and  Modern  Substitutes,"  p.  144. 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  379 

aspirations,  of  his  hopes,  of  his  enthusiasms.  Man  in  his  col- 
lective capacity,  the  organism  "humanity,"  is  to  be  worshiped  by 
each  individual  man.  And  from  this  new  cultus,  we  are  told  there 
is  to  flow  forth  a  morality,  which,  in  its  spirit  and  its  objects, 
shall  be  enthusiastically  human,  against  which,  as  we  are  further 
assured,  the  inferior  ethics  of  Christendom,  weighted  with  the 
dogmatic  teaching  of  the  creeds,  will  struggle  in  vain  for  suprem- 
acy in  the  Europe  of  the  future.^ 

Canon  Liddon,  with  illuminating  directness,  inquires 
whether  the  humanity  to  be  worshiped  is  humanity  in 
the  abstract  or  humanity  in  the  concrete  ?  If  the 
former,  then,  after  all  the  parade  about  science,  a  meta- 
physical conception  is  made  the  foundation  of  the  new 
creed,  and  it  is  very  questionable  whether  such  abstrac- 
tions have  ever  succeeded  in  developing  practical  right- 
eousness ;  and  if  the  latter,  then,  as  it  must  include  the 
Neros,  the  Alvas,  the  Dominies,  the  Lucretia  Borgias, 
and  the  entire  order  of  murderers,  adulterers,  prisoners, 
misers,  swindlers,  traitors,  drunkards,  bullies,  pimps, 
and  bawds,  as  well  as  the  goodly  company  of  saints  and 
sages,  the  worship  proposed  is  simply  an  absurdity  and 
an  impossibility.  But  Naville,  after  subjecting  the 
entire  scheme  to  a  searching  test,  goes  further  than  this, 
and  exposes  its  utter  worthlessness  as  a  moral  force. 
He  thus  analyzes  its  pretensions  as  an  ethical  cult,  and 
thus  criticises  them  : 

Mankind  is  the  summit  of  the  universe — there  is  nothing  higher. 
Mankind  is  God,  if  we  allow  that  this  sacred  name  may  be  used 
in  a  new  sense.  How  then  can  mankind  be  judged  ?  In  virtue 
of  what  law,  when  there  is  no  law  ?  In  the  name  of  what  right, 
when  there  is  no  right?  Condemnation  is  but  personal  prejudice, 
the  view  of  a  narrow  mind.      God  is  not  to  be  judged,  he  is  to  be 

1  Liddon's  "University  Sermons,"  p.  60. 


380      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

described  ;  his  acts  are  to  be  recognized,  they  are  all  to  be  equally 
honored.  The  deification  of  the  human  race  is  the  justification 
of  all  its  acts,  and  involves  as  its  direct  result  the  annihilation  of 
all  morality.^ 

Is  it  surprising  then,  in  view  of  the  breakdown  of 
positivism,  that  Guizot  should  have  expressed  himself 
as  he  does  in  his  works  concerning  Comte  and  his 
teachings  : 

At  any  other  period  his  doctrine  would  have  been  regarded  as 
folly,  but  having  been  born  in  our  times,  he  has  been  more  for- 
tunate ;  his  fundamental  principle,  and  the  coincidence  of  his 
first  ideas  with  the  method  and  tendency  of  the  physical  sciences, 
which  are  the  favorite  pursuit  of  the  age,  have  given  him  more 
weight  and  influence  than  he  actually  deserved.''^ 

And  this  verdict  has  been  confirmed  by  later  students. 
Positivism  to-day  is  rather  a  declining  cult  than  one  ad- 
vancing in  the  world's  confidence  and  esteem.  It  never 
had  any  solid  ground  on  which  to  build  its  hopes,  and 
even  the  ground  it  had  has  turned  out  to  be  the  most 
treacherous  quicksand.  Like  other  modern  rivals  to 
the  Christian  Faith,  it  is  now  sinking  below  the  horizon, 
a  pronounced  and  ignominious  failure. 

The  true  corrective  of  positivism  is  pessimism,  whose 
famous  advocate  and  expounder,  Schopenhauer,  born  in 
1788,  seems  to  have  been  called  to  demonstrate  the  im- 
possibility of  such  a  wretched,  miserable,  and  contempt- 
ible thing  as  humanity  becoming  an  object  of  worship. 
But  the  philosopher  of  woe  and  melancholy,  while  an- 
tagonizing positivism,  has  no  remedy  to  propose  nor 
any  substitute  to  offer.      His  entire  thought  is  charged 

1  "  Z<f  Pere  Celeste.''''     2  '-'■Meditations  sur  la  Religion  Chretienne.^'' 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  38 1 

with  the  elements  of  agony  and  despair.  He  sees  no 
possibility  for  hope  of  any  kind.  He  says:  ''The  his- 
tory of  every  life  is  a  history  of  suffering,  for  the  course 
of  life  is  generally  but  a  series  of  greater  or  lesser  mis- 
fortunes," to  which  he  adds :  "  The  more  intelligent  the 
man  is,  the  more  completely  does  he  attain  the  full 
quantum  of  misery  ;  he  in  whom  genius  lives  suffers 
most  of  all."  Moreover,  he  continues  :  ''  Driven  by 
fear  of  ennui,  men  and  women  rush  into  society,  think- 
ing to  gain  a  fleeting  pleasure  by  escaping  from  them- 
selves. But  in  vain  ;  their  inseparable  foe  renews  his 
torments  only  too  surely."  Such  language  reminds  me 
of  what  I  have  read  of  a  Buddhist  monastery  in  the  far 
East,  and  of  the  fate  which  often  overtakes  its  inhabit- 
ants. The  building  is  reared  on  the  edge  of  a  great 
cliff,  and  frequently  beneath  it  the  clouds  gather  in 
various  and  fantastic  forms.  There  are  seasons  when 
these  clouds  become  saturated  with  light,  and  when 
they  shine  in  all  the  splendor  of  gold,  purple,  and  violet. 
When  this  magnificent  transfiguration  occurs,  devotees 
in  the  monastery  call  it  ''the  glory  of  Buddha,"  and 
frenzied  by  religious  delirium  they  sometimes  cast  them- 
selves into  this  palpitating  mass  of  color  and  sunshine, 
only  to  be  dashed  to  death  on  the  hidden  rocks  beneath, 
victims  for  the  vulture  and  the  jackal.  So,  if  Schopen- 
hauer and  Von  Hartmann  are  to  be  credited,  we  are 
constantly  being  befooled  by  our  own  desires.  Illusions 
enchant  us,  gilded  deceptions  fascinate ;  and  we  im- 
agine that  in  this  pleasure  and  that  delight  surcease 
from  sorrow  must  be  found,  and  plunging  in  discover, 
when  too  late,  that  the  reality  only  maims  and  crushes 
us  the  more. 


382      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURV 

Of  such  a  deadly,  dreary,  and  desperate  philosophy 
religion  never  could  be  born.  Religion  is  essentially 
optimistic.  When  it  has  no  good  tidings  to  proclaim, 
no  hope  to  inspire,  it  lacks  in  what  is  indispensable  to 
its  character.  Were  it  to  avow  the  teachings  of  pes- 
simism, whether  of  the  Schopenhauer  school  or  of  the 
Max  Nordau  type,  it  would  fail  to  kindle  the  spirit  of 
worship,  and  would  lead  only  to  such  desperation  as 
Shelley  voices  in  his  tragical  "  Prometheus  "  : 

But  thou,  who  art  the  God  and  Lord  :  oh  thou 
Who  fillest  with  thy  soul  this  world  of  woe, 
To  whom  all  things  of  earth  and  heaven  do  bow 
In  fear  and  worship  :  all-prevailing  foe  ! 

I  curse  thee  !   Let  a  sufferer's  curse 

Clasp  thee,  his  torturer,  like  remorse  ! 

Till  thine  Infinity  shall  be 

A  robe  of  envenomed  agony  ; 
And  thine  Omnipotence  a  crown  of  pain  ; 
To  cling  like  burning  gold  round  thy  dissolving  brain. 

We  have  no  reason,  therefore,  to  consider  pessimism 
as  the  rival  of  Christianity,  as  the  Macbeth  plotting  to 
take  its  throne,  but  rather  as  the  Frankenstein  of 
graveyards  and  dissecting-rooms,  insidting  the  Creator, 
destructive  alike  of  religion  and  the  religious  spirit. 
Ikit  as  its  efforts  have  proved  unavailing,  and  as  in  the 
nature  of  things  they  must  continue  to  fail,  and  as  they 
have  only  demonstrated  by  their  disclosures  of  human 
anguish  the  need  that  exists  for  the  tender  offices  of 
Christianity,  we  may  dismiss  pessimism  without  further 
ceremony,  and  direct  our  attention  to  certain  modern 
substitutes  which  have  taken  special,  though  not  ex- 
clusive, hold  on  the  American  world. 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  383 

Among  these,  Spiritualism,  or  Spiritism  as  it  ought  to 
be  named,  occupies  a  very  prominent  place.  It  was  in 
1849  that  the  "  Fox  girls,"  through  the  notorious  "  Roch- 
ester rappings,"  invited  public  attention  to  what  may 
be  termed  psychic  phenomena.  The  young  women 
claimed  that  these  rappings  were  signs  from  the  dead, 
and  conveyed  communications  from  the  spirit  land. 
This  explanation  naturally  excited  inquiry,  led  to  many 
experiments,  with  the  result  that  not  a  few  people 
adopted  the  views  of  the  sisters.  Here  we  have  the 
beginnings  of  Spiritism  in  the  United  States.  The 
craze  spread  rapidly.  Mediums  multiplied.  To  serve 
as  connecting  links  between  the  inhabitants  of  two 
worlds  became  a  regular  calling.  Believers  were  or- 
ganized into  ''seances,"  ''circles,"  "associations,"  and 
in  1859  it  ^v^s  claimed  that  one  million  five  hundred 
thousand  persons  had  embraced  the  new  mysteries  as 
undeniable  verities.  It  was  hinted  that  four  million 
more  were  partly  convinced,  and  were  only  restrained 
by  certain  prejudices  from  going  farther.  About  the 
year  i860  it  seemed  as  if  our  country  were  to  become 
"the  happy  hunting  grounds"  of  restless  ghosts,  and 
our  citizens  very  generally  to  become  absorbed  in  occult 
pursuits.  Then  came  a  pause,  then  a  decline,  and  a 
late  census  gives  the  entire  membership  of  Spiritual  as- 
sociations as  forty-five  thousand  and  thirty.^  This  figure, 
however,  must  not  be  taken  too  literally.  There  are  still 
multitudes  who  are  more  or  less  closely  allied  with  this 
movement,  though  I  do  not  think  the  class  so  numerous 
as  a  writer  in  the  "  Spectator "  intimates  it  is  in  the 
"Modern  Athens,"  where  "in  more  than  one  street," 

^  Bacon  :   "  History  of  American  Christianity,"  p.  338. 


384      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

he  says,  "  the  names  of  professional  spirit  mediums, 
heah'ng  mediums,  alchemists,  palmists,  and  allied  call- 
ings, are  to  be  found  on  at  least  every  other  door-plate."  ^ 
On  the  whole,  I  should  say  that  confidence  in  Spiritism 
as  a  form  of  supernaturalism  has  declined,  though  as  an 
incentive  to  psychical  research  it  has  gained  in  in- 
fluence. 

Such  investigations  were  originally  started  in  Paris 
in  1785,  through  the  wonders  wrought  by  Mesmer,  who 
was  an  adept  in  a  special  form  of  magnetism.  Lavoisier, 
Franklin,  and  other  eminent  scientists,  shared  in  this 
work  ;  but  they  did  not  approach  it  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  more  recent  Spiritism.  Since  their  day  commis- 
sions have  been  appointed  in  many  countries  to  study 
the  phenomena  that  border  on  the  marvelous.  And, 
according  to  Alfred  Wallace,  it  is  not  necessary  to  deny 
their  reality  in  undertaking  to  explain  them.  He  bears 
this  testimony  on  the  subject  : 

One  after  another  facts,  long  denied  as  delusions  or  exaggera- 
tions, have  been  admitted  to  be  realities.  The  stigmata,  which 
at  different  times  have  occurred  in  Catholic  countries,  are  no 
longer  sneered  at  as  priestly  impostures.  Thought-transference, 
automatic-writing,  trance-speaking,  and  clairvoyance,  have  all 
been  demonstrated  in  the  presence  of  living  observers  of  un- 
doubted ability  and  knowledge,  as  they  were  demonstrated  to  the 
observers  of  the  early  part  of  the  century  and  carefully  recorded 
by  them.  The  still  more  extraordinary  phenomena,  veridical 
hallucinations,  warnings,  detailed  predictions  of  future  events, 
phantoms,  voices  or  knockings,  visible  or  audible  to  numerous 
individuals,  still  occur  among  us  as  they  have  occurred  in  all  ages.'^ 

Spiritism  has  done   much  in  our   time   to   stimulate 


Spectator,"  July  i,  1899.  ^  "The  Wonderful  Century,"  p.  2] 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  385 

these  inquiries,  not,  perhaps,  intentionally,  but  as  open- 
ing up  the  entire  subject  in  such  a  way  as  to  challenge 
scrutiny.  The  manifestations  it  deals  with  are  not 
novelties.  They  were  not  unknown  to  the  ancients. 
Traces  of  them  are  found  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, in  the  Egyptian  book  of  the  dead,  and  in  the 
literature  and  traditions  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
But  the  curious  circumstance  that  these  manifestations 
revived  in  the  most  modern  of  nations,  and  in  an  age 
exceptionally  scientific,  naturally  invested  them  with 
extraordinary  significance,  and  as  naturally  intensified 
the  desire  thoroughly  to  explore  their  origin  and  nature. 
Thus  they  lent  themselves  to  a  renewed  endeavor, 
similar  to  the  efforts  of  learned  commissions  a  century 
ago,  for  the  determination  of  the  grave  questions  that 
are  always  suggested  by  the  reappearance  of  occult 
phenomena.  To  this  extent,  therefore,  they  have  not 
proved  an  unmixed^evil  ;  and  had  Spiritualism  been  con- 
tent to  promote  simply  psychical  research  there  would 
be  little  occasion  to  refer  to  it  in  these  lectures. 

But  it  has  not  shown  itself  satisfied  with  this  role. 
It  has  gone  farther,  and  has  announced  itself  as  a  new 
religious  dispensation,  as  the  successor  of  the  Christian 
dispensation,  just  as  the  latter  was  the  successor  of  the 
Mosaic.  Its  representatives  declare  that  under  this 
latest  economy  the  spirits  of  the  departed  are  the  ordi- 
nary ministers  between  God  and  man,  and  that  it  is 
their  vocation  to  disclose  to  him  a  new  revelation  and  a 
new  system  of  morals.  This,  indeed,  is  a  very  radical 
departure  from  the  teachings  of  the  New  Testament. 
There  we  find  the  work  of  saving  men — and  whatever 
that  may  involve — entrusted  to  human  instrumentalities 


386      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  the  statement  made  by  St.  Paul  that  we  have  "  the 
heavenly  treasure  in  earthen  vessels."  The  church 
does  not  feel  itself  bound  to  affirm  or  deny  the  possible 
influence  on  the  living  of  those  who  are  dead.  The 
prayers  that  some  among  her  members  offer  to  the 
saints  in  heaven  would  seem  to  indicate  the  existence 
of  a  widespread  impression  that  death  has  not  rigidly 
excluded  them  from  interference  with  the  affairs  of 
earth.  But  even  were  this  admitted,  and  could  it  be 
shown  that  these  agencies  are  identical  with  the  "min- 
istering spirits "  described  by  St.  Paul,  it  would  not 
follow  that  prayers  ought  to  be  addressed  to  them,  or 
that  their  aid  should  be  sought  through  the  necromancy 
of  modern  mediums  ;  and  still  less  would  it  follow  that 
they  were  commissioned  to  set  aside  the  old  revelation 
and  give  to  mankind  a  new  faith  and  a  new  ethical  code. 
The  conclusions  are  too  great,  weighty,  and  varied  for 
the  premises. 

Let  it  be  conceded  that  a  thousand  phantoms  have 
"table-rapped  "  themselves  into  recognition  ;  at  the  bes.t 
that  would  only  prove  their  continued  existence,  and 
would  not  by  any  conceivable  necessity  establish  the 
assumption  that  they  were  appointed  to  supersede 
Christianity,  and  inaugurate  another  dispensation  as  a 
substitute.  I  humbly  submit,  that  so  tremendous  a 
corollary  could  only  be  rendered  plausible  by  something 
actually  being  done  along  the  lines  indicated.  But 
nothing  has  been  done.  From  the  countless  alleged 
communications  from  the  invisible  world  received  since 
1849,  no  ray  of  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  vexed 
problems  which  have  for  ages  troubled  mankind.  We 
know   no  more   of  God,  of  the  soul,  of  redemption,  of 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  38/ 

destiny  than  we  did  before.  There  has  been  much 
chattering  on  the  part  of  garrulous  phantoms,  and  the 
vanity  of  thousands  on  the  earth  has  been  gratified  by 
the  attentions  bestowed  on  them  by  the  shades  of 
Shakespeare,  Goethe,  Wordsworth,  Byron,  Condorcet, 
and  other  eminent  personages,  who,  probably,  had  they 
been  alive  would  never  have  been  drawn  to  converse 
with  those  ladies  and  gentlemen  who  now  represent 
themselves  as  the  recipients  of  their  confidences.  But 
from  all  this  imaginary  correspondence  the  world  has 
derived  no  nobler  beliefs  and  no  purer  morals  than  are 
contained  in  the  gospel  of  God's  Son.  Spiritism, 
whatever  else  it  does,  has  never  illuminated.  There  is 
no  light  in  it.  As  a  religion  it  is  a  religion  without  a 
message. 

What !  it  will  be  asked,  has  it  not  demonstrated  the 
immortality  of  the  soul }  No.  But  even  if  it  had,  that 
would  not  be  a  revelation.  It  would  only  be  the  cor- 
roboration of  a  revelation,  as  Christianity  has  taught  it 
from  the  beginning.  Suppose  that  a  man  who  died  fifty 
years  ago  returns  and  raps  on  a  table  ;  that  only  proves 
that  he  now  exists,  not  that  he  will  persist  eternally  to 
exist.  Because  a  person  lives  and  is  in  good  health  to- 
day, that  does  not  establish  beyond  doubt  that  he  will 
be  alive  and  in  good  health  to-morrow.  To  prove  any- 
thing by  experience,  the  experience  must  be  completed. 
But  the  experience  of  an  endless  existence  can  never  be 
finished,  and,  therefore,  it  can  never  be  proven  by  ex- 
perience. Hence  immortality  can  never  be  verified  and 
authenticated  in  any  other  way  than  by  the  inner  testi- 
mony of  the  soul  and  the  direct  assurance  given  by 
God.      This  double  authentication  we  have,  independent 


388      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

of  everything  that  Spiritism  has  either  said  or  done. 
Savage  and  semi-barbarous  tribes  have  beUeved  in  the 
posthumous  existence  and  influence  of  the  dead,  with- 
out entertaining  clear  and  definite  convictions  regarding 
their  immortality.  And  their  general  oblivion  to  any 
necessary  connection  between  posthumous  existence  and 
everlasting  existence  may  be  taken  as  a  sign  that  even 
now  we  are  not  warranted  in  arguing  confidently  from 
the  one  to  the  other. 

On  the  subject  of  ethics  it  is  not  easy  to  write  with 
perfect  candor  and  freedom.  But  it  may  with  safety  be 
said,  that  Spiritism  has  added  nothing  to  our  better 
understanding  or  to  our  truer  exemplification  of  moral- 
ity. As  a  religion  it  has  pledged  itself  to  give  the 
world  a  new  moral  code.  Thus  far  it  has  done  nothing 
of  the  kind  ;  and  society  is  still  burdened  with  the  im- 
plied condition  and  inadequacies  of  the  **  Ten  Com- 
mandments "  and  the  ''  Sermon  on  the  Mount."  This 
delay  is  ominous  of  ultimate  failure,  particularly  as  there 
are  not  lacking  indications  that  Spiritism  as  a  system 
rather  tends  to  practices  and  conduct  subversive  of  even 
ordinary  ideas  of  right  than  to  their  enlargement  and 
advancement.  A  recent  writer  ^  quotes  William  Howitt 
as  saying  years  ago :  "  If  anything  can  kill  it,  it  will  be 
the  follies  and  contemptible  meanness  of  the  Spiritual- 
ists themselves."  And  Dr.  Bacon,  summing  up  the 
findings  of  the  famous  Seybert  Commission,  appointed 
by  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  concludes  : 

Every  case  of  alleged  communication  from  the  world  of  de- 
parted   spirits    that    was    investigated   .    .    .    was    discovered   and 


*  Miss  X.,  **  Essays  in  Psychical  Research.' 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  389 

demonstrated  to  be  a  fraud.  The  evidence  is  strong  that  the 
organized  system  of  spiritualism  in  America,  with  its  Associations 
and  lyceums  and  annual  camp-meetings,  and  its  itinerancy  of 
mediums  and  trance  speakers,  is  a  system  of  mere  imposture.^ 

That  many  simple-minded  and  honest  people  have  been 
entrapped  by  this  delusion,  and  that  many  under  the  ex- 
citement of  supposed  communications  with  the  invisible 
have  been  unintentionally  blind  to  the  moral  obliquity 
involved  in  certain  courses  adopted  to  convince  the 
skeptical,  must  be  conceded.  We  have  no  desire  to  be 
classed  with  those  who  are  undiscriminating  in  their 
judgments;  particularly  as  the  history  of  mankind 
proves  how  frequently  worthy  people,  who  usually  act 
worthily,  have  been  betrayed  into  unworthy  schemes 
and  deeds  by  what  they  regarded  as  the  emergencies  of 
their  religion,  the  preservation  of  whose  credibility  they 
have  counted  as  of  infinitely  more  moment  than  un- 
swerving devotion  to  the  principles  of  commonplace 
integrity.  But  with  this  concession,  it  must  still  be 
held  that  the  frequent  exposures  of  fraud,  the  unsavory 
reports  from  a  certain  camp-meeting, — which  shall  be 
nameless, — and  the  singular  doings  of  masculine  short- 
haired  women  and  feminine  long-haired  men,  and  the 
constant  preference  for  darkness,  suggest  that  spiritism 
as  a  system,  is  not  favorable  to  morality,  and  is  hardly 
likely  to  elaborate  a  code  of  conduct  superior  to  the 
ethics  that  has  been  proclaimed  for  two  thousand  years 
by  Christianity.  And  failing  to  provide  a  better  revela- 
tion and  purer  laws,  what  other  conclusion  is  possible 
than  that  spiritism,  instead  of  superseding  the  ancient 
faith,  is  rather  doomed  to  wasting  and  decay. 

^  "  History  of  American  Christianity,"  p.  338. 


390      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Within  the  last  twenty-five  years  the  world  has  wit- 
nessed another  religious  departure,  which,  if  not  put 
forward  as  a  substitute  for  Christianity,  at  least  proposes 
such  a  revolution  in  our  apprehension  of  its  teachings 
and  its  divine  vocation  as  would  make  it  very  different 
from  what  it  is  at  present,  or  ever  has  been.  This  latest 
claimant  to  divine  honors  is  called  ''Christian  Science"  ; 
its  founder  is  Mrs.  Mary  Baker  Eddy,  and  its  text-book 
and  compendium  of  doctrine  and  practice  is  named 
"Science  and  Health."  It  is  estimated  that  upward  of 
three  hundred  thousand  persons  in  this  country  and  in 
Canada  have  embraced  this  new  faith,  or  this  new  inter- 
pretation of  the  old  faith,  the  overwhelming  majority  of 
whom  are  people  who  would  adorn  any  communion. 
That  they  are  devoted  to  the  cause  they  have  espoused 
is  evidenced,  not  merely  by  their  lavish  liberality  in 
rearing  handsome  meeting-houses,  but  by  their  extraor- 
dinary sensitiveness  to  moderate  and  candid  criticism ; 
doubts,  objections,  questions  being  usually  dealt  with  as 
signs  of  unreasoning  hostility. 

The  phenomena  of  Christian  Science  differ  from  those 
of  Spiritism  in  that  they  are  mundane — in  that  they 
center  in  wonders  wrought  on  the  living,  and  not  in  rev- 
elations brought  by  the  dead.  They  consist  in  healings 
accomplished  without  drugs  and  without  aid  from  certi- 
fied physicians  of  the  regular  medical  profession.  The 
alleged  performance  of  marvelous  cures,  however,  is  not 
a  novelty.  Accounts  of  them  exist  in  connection  with 
the  most  ancient  of  creeds,  and  the  power  to  perform 
them  has  been  claimed  by  pagan  as  well  as  Christian, 
by  Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic.  If  human  testimony 
is  worth  anything,  they  were  wrought  at  the  shrine  of 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  39 1 

the  Asklepieia  of  Greece  and  in  the  old  temple  of 
^sculapius  at  Rome,  just  as  in  recent  times  they  have 
been  witnessed  at  Lourdes  and  St.  Winifred's  Well,  and 
at  the  tombs  of  Mussulman  Marabouts.  No  religion, 
ancient  or  modern,  has  had  a  monopoly  of  them,  and 
they  have  even  been  effected  where  religion  of  every 
kind  was  ignored.  An  instance  of  this  we  have  in  the 
remarkable  cure  of  Harriet  Martineau,  a  gifted  woman, 
and  a  vigorous  disbeliever  in  the  supernatural.  A  pelvic 
tumor,  which  had  long  afflicted  her,  was  so  far  overcome 
by  mesmeric  influences  that,  though  it  was  found  in  her 
body  after  death,  it  ceased  during  her  long  life  to  cause 
her  inconvenience  or  trouble. 

Eminent  scientists,  like  Gasquet  and  Charcot,  do  not 
question  the  reality  of  the  healings  which  have  taken 
place  during  the  nineteenth  century  at  Christian  shrines. 
The  former  of  these  authorities  visited  Lourdes  several 
years  ago,  and  carefully  studied  the  reputed  and  reported 
miracles.  He  testifies  that  invalids  whose  symptoms 
were  purely  neurotic  were  generally  restored  to  health, 
but  when  they  betrayed  cancer,  tuberculosis,  blindness, 
and  deafness  the  results  were  not  so  encouraging.  His 
explanation  of  what  he  saw  at  Lourdes  is  summed  up  in 
the  acknowledgment  that  the  cures  *'  were  evidently,  in 
one  way  or  another,  due  to  the  influence  of  the  mind  on 
the  body."  And  any  one  who  will  read  Tuke  ^  on  this 
subject  will  no  longer  doubt  the  wonderful  power  the 
mind  exerts  over  the  mortal  conditions  of  the  flesh. 
This  was  so  fully  recognized  by  Charcot,  that  he  often 

^  "Illustrations  of  the  Influence  of  Mind  upon  the  Body."  See  also 
Zola's  "Lourdes  "  ;  also  "  British  Med.  Journal,"  June  ii  and  i8,  1898, 
and  June  17,  1899. 


392      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

sent  patients  suffering  from  what  Sir  John  Russell 
Reynolds  termed  ''paralysis  from  idea"  to  the  holy 
waters  at  Lourdes.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  when 
the  action  of  the  mind  is  invigorated  and  intensified 
bv  deep  religious  convictions  that  the  cures  accom- 
'plishedwill  be  more  striking  and  more  numerous.  Con- 
sequently we  have  no  right  to  deny  the  reality  of  those 
which  have  occurred  under  the  influence  of  Christian 
Science.  They  are  doubtless  in  every  sense  as  deserv- 
ing of  credit  as  those  wrought  some  years  ago  by  faith- 
healers,  or  as  those  which  have  taken  place  at  Catholic 
shrines,  or  which  have  been  brought  about  by  the  per- 
sonal touch  of  the  peripatetic  enthusiasts  who  have  wan- 
dered over  the  country  casting  out  diseases  as  Christ 
cast  out  devils.  But  from  the  occurrence  of  these  phe- 
nomena in  association  with  various  types  of  religious  be- 
lief, and  occasionally  in  connection  with  none,  or,  what 
is  worse,  in  connection  with  the  pernicious  creed  of  Mo- 
hammed, it  logically  follows  that  the  philosophy  con- 
tained in  "  Science  and  Health,"  whether  true  or  false, 
does  not  reveal  the  true  secret  of  their  performance. 
Where  that  philosophy  has  never  been  heard  of,  and 
where  it  has  been  openly  rejected,  healing  marvels  have 
not  been  infrequent,  and,  therefore,  they  cannot  be 
ascribed  to  the  strange  metaphysical  theories  which  it 
advances. 

But  however  caused,  a  religion  which  makes  them  its 
chief  distinction  assuredly  fails  in  several  respects  to 
suggest  a  correspondence  with  apostolic  Christianity. 
When  our  Lord  sent  out  his  disciples  to  teach,  the 
healing  of  disease  was  not  their  main  business.  It  was 
only  incidental  to,  and  confirmatory  of,  their  great  mis- 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  393 

sion  to  mankind.  Subsequently,  after  the  ascension, 
while  miracles  of  healing  were  performed,  they  were  too 
few  in  number  for  the  inference  to  be  warranted  that 
the  church  had  been  set  apart,  if  not  exclusively,  yet 
principally,  for  the  conquest  through  supernaturalism 
of  sickness  and  infirmities.  This  subject  docs  not  form 
the  staple  of  apostolic  speech  and  literature,  as  it  does 
in  Christian  Science  gatherings  and  publications.  From 
what  we  know  of  the  early  church,  as  its  history  is  re- 
corded in  the  New  Testament,  no  hint  is  given  of  meet- 
ings where  the  disciples  discussed  their  ailments,  or  de- 
voted their  thoughts  or  their  praises  to  this  theme. 
That  "gifts  of  healing,"  like  the  ''gift  of  tongues,"  had 
been  conferred  on  some  of  God's  people  is  not  for  a 
moment  questioned  ;  but  as  they  were  evidently  re- 
stricted to  a  few,  and  as  hardly  anything  is  said  of  their 
exercise,  it  is  clear  that  they  occupied  only  a  subordi- 
nate and  not  the  chief  place  in  Christian  thought  and 
activity.  The  modern  church  may  have  erred  in  not 
giving  more  attention  to  the  possibility  of  restoring 
these  healing  gifts  ;  but  she  has  not  erred  in  declining 
to  assume  that  she  is  the  sole  or  leading  remedial 
agency  in  the  world,  and  that  she  is  under  obligation 
to  antagonize  medical  science  and  condemn  the  use  of 
those  curatives  which  a  beneficent  Creator  has  im- 
planted in  nature.  As  well  might  she  condemn  the  use 
of  mineral  springs  and  of  the  rejuvenating  sunshine. 
And  any  denomination,  new  or  old,  that  thus  fails  to 
comprehend  the  genius  of  our  faith,  and  thus  unreason- 
ably narrows  its  ministrations,  whatever  success  may 
attend  its  early  endeavors,  will  in  the  long  run  lose  its 
hold  on  the  judgment  and  affections  of  mankind. 


394      CHRISTIAMTV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

It  hardly  falls  within  the  province  of  these  lectures  to 
review  the  philosophy  of  which  Christian  Science  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  embodiment.  Candidly,  I  am  grateful 
that  I  am  under  no  obligation  to  undertake  this  unper- 
formable  task.  I  have  read  carefully  "  Science  and 
Health,"  and  I  am  compelled  to  confess  that  it  is  too 
much  for  my  ''mortal  mind."  I  do  not  understand  it. 
There  are  thousands  of  excellent  people  who  acknowl- 
edge that  the  Bible  is  too  deep  for  them,  and  who  yet 
declare  that  ''Science  and  Health"  is  translucent  and 
transparent  and  easily  fathomable.  And  still,  when  I 
have  sought  from  some  of  these  confident  individuals  a 
little  light  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  book,  they  have  be- 
trayed as  much  hesitancy  as  I  myself  have  felt.  I  am 
beginning  to  suspect  that  they  comprehend  it  as  little  as 
I  do,  and  I  am  curious  to  know  whether  its  author  could 
elucidate  it  herself,  or  whether,  if  closely  pressed,  she 
would  not  have  to  imitate  Robert  Browning,  who  is  re- 
ported to  have  answered,  when  asked  to  give  the  mean- 
ing of  a  passage  he  had  penned  some  years  before  :  "  I 
wrote  it.  And  when  I  wrote  it  God  knew  and  I  knew 
what  it  meant.  But  now,  I  suppose  that  God  still  knows  ; 
I  do  not."  But  I  hope  the  author  will  not  be  hastily 
blamed  for  her  conceivable  forgetfulness,  or  I  be  too 
harshly  censured  for  my  obtuseness ;  for  I  question 
whether  my  mortal  mind  can  quite  rise  to  the  level,  for 
instance,  of  this  description  of  Adam  : 

Error  ;  a  falsity  ;  the  belief  in  original  sin,  sickness,  and  death  ; 
evil ;  the  opposite  of  Good,  or  God,  and  his  creation  ;  a  curse  :  a 
belief  in  intelligent  matter,  finiteness  and  mortality  ;  dust  to  dust ; 
red  sandstone  ;  nothingness  ;  the  first  god  of  mythology  ;  not 
God's  man,  who  represents  the  one  God,  and  is  his  own  image 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  395 

and  likeness  ;  the  opposite  of  Spirit  and  its  creations  :  that  which 
is  not  the  image  and  likeness  of  Good,  but  a  material  belief,  op- 
posed to  the  one  Mind,  or  Spirit  ;  so-called  finite  mind,  producing 
other  minds,  thus  making  "gods  many  and  lords  many"  ;  a  pro- 
duct of  nothing,  as  the  opposite  of  something,  an  unreality  as  op- 
posed to  the  great  reality  of  spiritual  existence  and  creation  ;  a 
so-called  man,  whose  origin,  substance,  and  mind  are  supposed 
to  be  the  opposite  of  God  or  Spirit ;  an  inverted  image  of  Spirit  ; 
the  image  and  likeness  of  God's  opposites,  namely,  matter,  sin, 
sickness,  and  death  ;  the  antipodes  of  Truth,  termed  error,  the 
counterfeit  of  Life,  which  ultimates  in  death  ;  the  opposition  of 
Love,  called  hate  ;  the  antipodes  of  Spirit's  creation,  called  self- 
creative  matter  ;  Immortality's  opposite,  mortality,  that  of  which 
wisdom  saith,  "Thou  shalt  surely  die."  This  name  represents 
the  false  supposition  that  life  is  not  eternal,  but  has  beginning 
and  end  ;  that  the  infinite  enters  the  finite  ;  intelligence  passes 
into  non-intelligence,  and  soul  dwells  in  material  sense  ;  that  im- 
mortal mind  results  in  matter,  and  matter  in  mortal  mind  ;  that 
the  one  God  and  Creator  entered  what  he  created,  and  then  dis- 
appeared in  the  atheism  of  matter. 

Until  I  read  this  paragraph  I  never  knew  what  a  com- 
posite of  indescribable  monstrosities  this  Adam  was.  I 
know  now  ;  or  at  least,  I  do  not  know  ;  and  I  venture  the 
assertion  that  Adam  would  not  recognize  his  own  features 
in  this  singular  mirror  ;  and  I  am  under  the  impression 
that  no  human  being,  not  even  Fichte  or  Hegel,  familiar 
enough  with  involved  phraseology,  could  render  it  intel- 
ligible to  mankind. 

Neither  is  it  easy  to  make  out  what  is  intended  by 
this  definition  of  ''  mortal  mind  "  : 

Nothing  claiming  to  be  something,  for  Mind  is  immortal  ; 
error  creating  other  errors  ;  a  belief  that  life,  substance,  and  intel- 
ligence are  in  and  of  matter  ;  the  belief  that  life  has  a  beginning 
and   therefore  an  end  ;    the  belief  that  man   is  the  offspring  of 


396      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

mortals  ;    the  belief  that  there  can  be  more  than  one  creator  ; 
idolatry,  sin,  sickness,  death. 

To  be  thus  endowed  would  indeed  be  an  awful  visita- 
tion, if  we  could  only  quite  make  out  just  what  is  meant. 
But  we  may  well  ask  how  can  such  a  concatenation  of 
errors  and  evils  be  possible,  if  the  optimistic  concep- 
tions contained  in  the  following  sentences  are  true  : 

Man  is  spiritual  and  perfect  :  he  is  incapable  of  sin,  sickness, 
and  death,  inasmuch  as  he  derives  his  essence  from  God. 
Hence,  the  real  man  cannot  depart  from  holiness.  Evil  is  an 
illusion,  and  has  no  real  basis.  Sin  exists  only  as  long  as  the 
material  illusion  remains  ;  it  is  the  sense  of  sin  and  not  the  sinful 
soul  which  must  be  lost.  Sin,  sickness,  and  death  should  cease 
through  Christian  Science. 

In  view  of  these  inaccessible  heights  and  cloud-sum- 
mits of  ''  Science  and  Health,"  one  may  well  be  excusa- 
ble if  he  hesitates  to  climb,  and  if  he  thinks  himself  not 
altogether  insane  for  declining  the  perilous  venture. 
Bnt  there  is  one  thing  clear  enough  through  all  this 
complicated  philosophy  of  healing,  which  the  humblest 
mind,  ''mortal"  or  otherwise,  cannot  refrain  from  re- 
gretting, and  which  must  inevitably  confuse,  perplex, 
and  work  out  some  very  pernicious  sequences,  and  that 
is,  the  determination  to  deal  with  many  of  our  most  re- 
liable experiences  as  illusions,  phantasmagoria,  and  self- 
deceptions.  A  very  competent  inquirer,  J.  W.  Conley, 
D.  D.,  has  summed  up  this  peculiar  feature  of  its  teach- 


Mrs.  Eddy  declares  :  "Nothing  we  can  say  or  believe  regard- 
ing matter  is  true  except  that  matter  is  unreal."  She  defines 
matter  as  that  "which  mortal  mind  sees,  feels,  hears,  tastes,  and 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  39/ 

smells  only  in  belief."  "  (Christian)  Science  reveals  material  man 
as  a  dream  at  all  times,  and  never  as  the  real  Being."  "The 
material  senses  testify  falsely."  "The  material  atom  is  an  out- 
lined falsity  of  consciousness."  "(Christian)  Science  and  mate- 
rial sense  conflict  at  all  points,  from  the  revolution  of  the  earth  to 
the  fall  of  a  sparrow."  Scores  of  similar  quotations  might  be 
given.  The  whole  material  universe,  from  remotest  star  to 
minutest  atom,  is  a  strange,  inexplicable,  complicated  delusion. 
It  is  the  product  of  the  "mortal  mind,"  and  the  "mortal  mind" 
itself  is  defined  as  "a  solecism  in  language,"  "something  untrue 
and  unreal."  This  attitude  toward  matter  and  the  testimony  of 
the  senses  is  more  serious  than  at  first  it  may  appear.  It  means 
that  it  is  folly  to  study  astronomy,  geology,  chemistry,  biology, 
or  any  of  the  sciences  which  have  contributed  so  marvelously  to 
the  progress  of  this  age.  Such  studies  only  tend  more  hopelessly 
to  involve  man  in  the  bondage  to  that  which  is  fundamentally  false.  ^ 

But,  unfortunately,  it  means  more  than  this.  It  im- 
poses on  the  world  a  series  of  fictions,  which  do  not  in 
the  least  alter  the  facts,  and  which  predispose  the  suf- 
ferer to  rest  content  with  fictitious  antidotes.  Are  all 
the  physical  pangs  and  mental  griefs  of  our  race  merely 
hallucinations  ?  Are  they  only  unsubstantial  shadows  .? 
But  could  it  be  proven  that  they  are  these  and  nothing 
more, — a  conclusion  that  never  can  be  established,  for  if 
a  malady  is  only  a  morbid  mode  of  thought,  how  comes 
it  that  the  observer  has  the  same  impression  of  the  in- 
valid that  the  patient  has  of  himself  i' — this  would  not 
render  them  less  painful,  burdensome,  and  corroding. 
Call  it  by  any  name  we  will,  a  toothache  is  a  toothache 
still  ;  and  if  it  is  only  a  fantasy,  the  fantasy  is  as  unen- 
durable as  the  reality  would  be.  Sometimes  we  deceive 
ourselves  and  imagine  that  a  different  formula  changes 
the  character  of  the  thing  described.      But  if  we  substi- 

^  "The  Standard,"  Chicago,  February  25,  1899. 


398      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tute  the  word  ''heredity"  for  "depravity,"  we  only  de- 
lude ourselves  if  we  suppose  that  the  more  scientific 
term  has  obliterated  the  evil  condition  represented  by 
the  theological  one.  So  disease  is  disease,  however  the 
nomenclature  may  be  altered  to  meet  the  exigencies  of 
some  philosophical  theory.  To  think  of  it  otherwise 
compels  us  to  think  of  the  cure  as  being  as  fictitious  as 
the  ailment,  and  this,  so  far  as  Christianity  is  concerned, 
nullifies  the  sublime  realities  on  which  its  validity  and 
power  rest — the  incarnation,  the  atonement,  and  the 
resurrection.  The  terminology  which  suggests  to  the 
mind  these  sublime  acts  maybe  retained,  but  if  they  are 
emptied  of  their  historical  significance,  as  they  are  by  this 
philosophy,  then  only  a  phantom  of  the  truth,  a  glittering 
simulacrum,  survives.  And  thus  religion  comes  to  con- 
sist of  an  interchange  of  hallucinations,  an  assemblage 
and  interplay  of  fancies,  dreams,  and  illusions,  which, 
however  they  maybe  set  forth  in  the  name  of  ''science" 
and  with  a  show  of  scientific  exactness,  cannot  exert  a 
practical  influence  on  a  world  where  real  hunger  and  real 
thirst  create  a  craving  that  will  not  be  forever  satisfied 
with  the  kind  of  viands  provided.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
lodge  a  protest  against  the  idealism  underlying  Christian 
Science,  when  we  repudiate  what  we  regard  as  strained 
and  illegitimate  inferences  from  its  premises. 

That  the  mind  is  superior  to  the  body  we  nothing 
doubt.  That  the  consistent  explication  and  defense  of 
this  supremacy  is  of  great  value  to  modern  society  we 
do  not  question.  For  the  service  rendered  in  this  di- 
rection by  Christian  Scientists  we  are  duly  appreciative. 
But  when  they  intimate  that  there  is  no  body  over 
which  the  mind  can  be  lord,  and  no  real  external  world 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  399 

in  which  it  can  display  its  supremacy,  they  may  well  be 
tolerant  of  those  who  confess  that  they  cannot  yet  see 
how  things  can  be,  and  not  be,  at  the  same  time,  nor  de- 
nominate those  who  courteously  differ  from  them  "  ma- 
terialists," when  their  only  fault  is,  if  fault  it  be,  that 
they  cannot  bring  themselves  to  endorse  an  idealism 
which  leaves  nothing  to  idealize. 

To  me  it  is  exceedingly  distasteful  that  the  account  I 
am  giving  of  ''modern  substitutes"  should  require  an 
introduction  of  Mormonism  into  a  lecture  where  Chris- 
tian Science  has  been  treated,  for  they  have  nothing  in 
common  and  are  as  wide  apart  as  the  poles.  If  the  lat- 
ter is  too  abstruse,  abstract,  speculative,  and  impalpable, 
the  former  is  far  too  concrete,  too  unambiguous,  too 
earthy,  fleshly,  and  sensual.  And  if  we  had  to  choose 
between  the  two,  without  a  moment's  hesitancy  every 
self-respecting  mind  would  decisively  reject  Mormonism. 
That  this  system,  with  very  little  to  recommend  it,  and 
with  tenets  and  infamies  to  condemn  it,  should  have 
succeeded  as  it  has,  is  one  of  the  extraordinary  anom- 
alies of  an  extraordinary  century.  "  In  its  origin,"  Doc- 
tor Bacon  writes  :  "  Mormonism  is  distinctly  American 
— a  system  of  gross,  palpable  imposture,  contrived  by  a 
disreputable  adventurer,  Joe  Smith,  with  the  aid  of  three 
confederates,  who  afterward  confessed  the  fraud  and 
perjury  of  which  they  had  been  guilty."  ^  Hepworth 
Dixon,  in  his  review  of  its  teachings,  says  that  among 
other  peculiar  doctrines,  it  holds  man  to  have  existed 
from  all  eternity,  to  be  an  imcreated  intelligence  des- 
tined to  endure  forever^  whose  kingdom  is  made  up  of 
his  wives,  a  possession  not  only  for  time  but  for  eternity 

^  "Hist.  Am.  Christianity,"  p.  335. 


400      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

as  well,  and  whose  religious  organization,  known  as  Mor- 
monism,  is  the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth. ^ 

It  is  a  comfort  to  be  assured  that  it  no  longer  regards 
itself  as  a  Christian  sect,  but  as  a  rival  and  an  enemy. 
Mohammed,  Joseph  Smith,  and  Brigham  Young  it  as- 
sociates with  Jesus  Christ  in  the  honors  of  divinity,  and 
it  declares  that  the  business  of  deities  is  the  propaga- 
tion of  souls  to  inhabit  bodies  begotten  on  earth,  sexu- 
ality permeating  every  portion  of  its  creed  as  thoroughly 
as  it  entered  into  the  religious  philosophy  of  ancient 
Egypt.  ''  The  saints  on  leaving  this  world  are  deified, 
and  their  glory  is  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  their 
wives  and  children,  hence  the  necessity  and  justification 
of  polygamy."  However,  polygamy  is  not  sanctioned 
in  the  original  "  Book  of  Mormon,"  but  in  a  revelation  to 
Smith,  July  12,  1843,  a  timely  interposition  of  the  un- 
seen Ahriman  to  mollify  the  prophet's  lawful  wife,  who 
objected  to  his  having  quite  a  number  of  illegal  ones. 
And  in  this  instance,  fraud  was  followed  by  swift  retri- 
bution. Through  the  proclamation  of  this  doctrine 
Smith  was  involved  in  armed  conflict  with  the  State  au- 
thorities. He  was  persuaded  to  surrender  and  stand  his 
trial.  He  consented  and  was  imprisoned,  with  a  com- 
panion named  Hyrum,  in  the  Carthage  jail.  But  on  the 
first  night  of  his  incarceration,  June  27,  1844,  a  crowd 
of  armed  men  forced  their  way  into  the  prison  and  shot 
him  and  his  companion  dead.  From  this  bloody  work 
the  great  migration  sprang,  for  realizing  that  they  would 
no  longer  be  tolerated  in  Illinois,  the  Mormons,  under 
the  leadership  of  Brigham  Young,  went  out  to  found  a 
new  State  in  the  then  unpeopled  region  of  Utah. 

2  "New  America,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  24. 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  4OI 

By  an  astute  and  persevering  system  of  proselyting, 
converts  v^ere  collected  from  the  manufacturing  and 
mining  districts  of  Great  Britain,  and  from  some  of  the 
continental  nations  of  Europe.  Lately,  however,  Mor- 
mon missionaries  have  invaded  American  cities,  and 
have  boasted  of  their  success  in  winning  over  not  a  few 
of  the  citizens  to  their  way  of  thinking,  and  presumably 
more  to  their  way  of  acting.  Nevertheless,  with  the 
increase  of  numbers  and  respectability,  and  with  the 
growing  i3roximity  of  the  civilized  world  to  Salt  Lake, 
there  are  not  lacking  signs  that  polygamy  is  doomed. 
Moreover,  a  happy  schism  has  occurred,  and  there  now 
exists  the  "  Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Lat- 
ter-Day  Saints,"  with  Piano,  Illinois,  as  its  headquarters, 
and  with  ''anti-polygamy"  as  its  rallying  cry.  Conse- 
quently, it  is  not  easy  to  foresee  just  what  the  future 
has  in  store  for  Mormonism — possibly  more  divisions, 
and  as  the  country  contiguous  to  Salt  Lake  becomes 
more  populous,  and  opportunities  diminish  for  the  inter- 
ference of  the  patriarch,  the  apostles,  the  elders,  priests 
and  other  officials  in  political  affairs,  probably  the  Mor- 
mon Church  will  lose  its  hold  on  its  members  and  finally 
disappear.  While  we  would  not  in  the  least  encourage 
harsh  treatment,  or  anything  bordering  on  proscription, 
it  does  seem  as  though  the  people  of  the  United  States 
should,  through  enlightenment,  sober  remonstrance,  and 
the  extension  of  American  ideas,  labor  to  bring  this  mon- 
strous superstition  to  an  end.  A  religion  that  grounds 
its  claims  to  recognition  on  a  book  which  printer  Solo- 
mon Spaulding  confessed  he  had  written  as  a  romance, 
that  has  in  its  history  records  of  resistance  to  the  law 
and  courts  of  the  land,  and  the  sad  story  of  the  Moun- 

2A 


402      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tain  Meadow  massacre,  and  that  imperils  the  integrity 
and  sanctity  of  the  home,  degrading  woman  and  cursing 
manhood,  is  a  blemish  and  an  incongruity  in  the  midst 
of  a  free  republic ;  and,  while  it  may  be  tolerated  for  a 
season,  by  all  peaceful  and  lawful  means  it  should  be 
effaced  as  speedily  as  possible/ 

The  manifest  unfitness  of  any  or  all  of  these  cults, 
philosophies,  and  creeds  to  serve  as  a  substitute  for 
Christianity,  strengthens  the  conviction  that  the  ancient 
Faith  is  not  destined  to  perish  from  the  earth.  Its 
sweet  eiitJianasia — or  expiring  voice — will  not  be  heard 
in  the  coming  century  ;  nor  is  it  even  conceivable  that 
the  death  of  our  religion  could  ever  tranquilly  and 
peacefully  be  accomplished.  Never  will  it  sigh  itself 
away.  Never  will  it  slowly  crumble  and  sink  quietly 
and  unnoticed,  like  some  tree  of  the  forest  rotten 
through  and  through  and  beautifully  festooned  with 
parasites.  Were  it  doomed,  it  would  fall  like  the 
mighty  forest  king  uprooted  by  the  tempest,  with  crash- 
ing, echoing  sounds,  and  crushing  beneath  its  ponder- 
ous weight  many  a  tender  growth.  That  was  a  great 
discovery  Johann  Von  Miiller,  the  famous  historian, 
made  in  1782.  Writing  from  Cassel  in  that  year,  he 
said  that  he  had  taken  it  into  his  head  to  read  the  New 
Testament,  and  adds  : 

How  shall  I  describe  what  I  found  ?  I  had  not  read  it  for 
many  years  and  was  prejudiced.  The  light  which  struck  Paul 
with  blindness  on  his  way  to  Damascus  was  not  more  surprising 
to  him  than  to  me,  when  I  suddenly  discovered  the  fulfillment  of 
all  hopes,  the  highest  perfection   of  philosophy,  the  explanation 

'  See  Hyde,  "Book  of  Doctrine  and  Covenants";  N.  W.  Greene, 
*' Mormonism  "  ;  Gunnison,  "  Latter  Saints. " 


THE    ISMS    AND    SCHISMS  4O3 

of  all  revolutions,  the  key  to  all  the  seeming  contradictions  of  the 
physical  and  moral  worlds.  .  .  The  whole  world  seemed  to  be 
ordered  for  the  sole  purpose  of  furthering  the  religion  of  the 
Redeemer,  and  if  this  religion  is  not  divine,  I  understand  nothing 
at  all.  .  .  Not  till  I  knew  our  Lord  was  all  clear  to  me  ;  with  him 
there  is  nothing  which  I  am  not  able  to  solve. 

But  if  Christ  and  his  religion  are  thus  interwoven 
with  the  world's  thought  and  life,  and  if  they  are  the 
explanation  of  social  changes  and  progress,  and  if  there 
is  such  an  intermixture  of  their  spirit  and  influence  in 
the  affairs  of  men  and  nations,  it  is  not  conceivable  that 
these  elements  could  be  eliminated  without  shock  and 
disaster,  and  without  convulsions  and  consternation. 
No  ;  the  overthrow  of  Christianity  is  not  probable.  The 
wrench  to  society  would  be  too  severe  for  such  a  calam- 
ity to  be  contemplated  with  serenity.  It  seems  at  this 
present  moment  to  lie  beyond  the  range  of  possible 
contingencies.  The  ineptitude  of  its  rivals  is  one  guar- 
antee of  its  survival  ;  and  its  own  inherent  worth  and 
grace  is  another.  Being  what  it  is,  and  doing  what  it 
does,  its  immortality  is  secure.  Confident  in  its  own 
essential  truth  and  nobility,  its  creed  of  hope  is  formu- 
lated for  it  in  the  language  of  Carlyle  : 

Await  the  issue  :  in  all  battles  if  you  await  the  issue,  each 
fighter  is  prospered  according  to  his  right.  His  right  and  his 
might,  at  the  close  of  the  account,  are  one  and  the  same.  He 
has  fought  with  all  his  might,  and  in  exact  proportion  to  his  right 
he  has  prevailed.  His  very  death  is  no  victory  over  him  :  he 
dies  indeed,  but  his  work  lives.  The  cause  thou  fightest  for,  in 
so  far  as  it  is  true,  so  far  and  no  farther,  but  precisely  so  far,  is 
sure  of  victory. 


IX 
THE  DISRUPTION  AND  REUNION 


With  zeal  we  watch, 
And  weigh  the  doctrines  while  the  spirit  'scapes  ; 
And  in  the  carving  of  our  cummin-seeds, 
Our  metaphysical  hair-splittings,  fail 
To  note  the  orbit  of  that  star  of  love 
Which  never  sets. 

Each  differing  sect  whose  base 
Is  on  the  same  pure  word,  doth  strictly  scan 
Its  neighbor's  superstructure, — point  and  arch, 
Buttress  and  turret, — till  the  hymn  of  praise. 
That  from  each  temple  should  go  up  to  God, 
Sinks  in  the  critic's  tone. 

— Mrs.  Sigourney. 


IX 


THE    MOVEMENT    FOR    THE     RESTORATION     OF     PRIMITIVE 
CHRISTIAN    UNION 

In  protesting  against  any  condition  of  things  we  de- 
plore, not  uncommonly  we  are  tempted  to  exaggerate. 
Gazing  for  a  long  time  and  steadfastly  on  the  object  of 
our  reproach,  we  may  lose  sight  of  everything  else,  and 
therefore,  come  to  speak  of  that  which  fills  the  entire 
field  of  vision  in  terms  of  unwarranted  hyperbole. 
Thus  a  recent  eloquent  and  amiable  writer,  in  pleading 
for  an  American  National  Church,  has  expressed  his 
estimate  of  the  evil  and  extent  of  denominationalism  in 
the  United  States  somewhat  more  extravagantly  than 
the  facts  admit. ^  This,  however,  ought  to  be  said  in 
extenuation — he  derives  his  figures  from  the  Govern- 
ment Census  of  1890.  Official  reports  frequently  do 
not  nicely  discriminate,  and  consequently  they  are 
sometimes  misleading.  But  when  they  are  used  as  a 
basis  for  an  argument  by  an  author,  they  should  be  very 
carefully  sifted.  The  census  states  that  there  are  one 
hundred  and  forty-three  distinct  religious  denominations 
in  this  country.  But  it  should  be  noted  that  these  are 
not  all  Christian  sects,  and  that  some  of  them,  while 
Christian,  are  not  large  enough  to  be  entitled  to  special 
mention.  The  official  enumeration  includes  Jews,  The- 
osophists,   Ethical    Culturists,   Spiritualists,    and    some 

1  Rev.  W.  R.  Huntington's  "A  National  Church." 

407 


408      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

thirty  additional  organizations  of  not  over  one  thousand 
members  each.  Surely  it  hardly  needs  discussion  to 
show  that  only  by  the  most  charitable  oblivion  to  palpa- 
ble distinctions,  can  these  various  bodies  be  classified  to- 
gether either  as  *' Christian,"  or  as  "denominations." 
Of  the  actually  professing  Christian  denominations  in 
the  United  States,  from  the  Roman  Catholics  with  their 
eight  or  nine  millions  of  population,  to  the  Protestants 
with  their  eighteen  or  nineteen  millions  of  members, 
there  are  only  sixty-three  sects  that  outnumber  ten 
thousand  adherents.  Let  us  confess  that  the  situation 
is  scandalous  enough  ;  but  let  us  not  through  inadver- 
tence, or  through  zeal  for  the  realization  of  a  cherished 
ideal,  create  the  impression  that  it  is  worse  than  it 
really  is. 

In  England,  likewise,  the  Registrar  General's  Report 
is  misleading.  That  official  document  announces  one 
hundred  and  twenty-two  different  sects  in  Great  Britain, 
with  upward  of  twenty  thousand  places  of  worship. 
But  many  of  these  bodies  are  only  separated  from 
others  by  the  most  infinitesimal  of  variations,  no  graver 
than  the  question  of  free  pews  or  rented  seats,  by 
which  churches  of  the  same  denomination  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other.  None  but  an  official  mind 
would  ever  think  of  registering  these  as  actually  differ- 
ent denominations.  With  good  reason,  therefore,  "The 
Saturday  Review,"  considering  the  Report  of  the 
Registrar,  inquires  : 

Who,  for  instance,  is  to  discriminate  the  precise  shade  of  theo- 
logical difference  which  separates  General,  Old,  New,  Particular, 
Strict,  Seventh  Day,  and  Union  Baptists  from  one  another  ?  Or 
how  are  Modern,    New,  Original,    Primitive,    Reformed,  Refuge, 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  4O9 

Temperance,  and  United  Methodists  respectively  distinguished 
in  their  behef  ?  Why  should  Christian  Brethren  be  separately 
organized  from  Christadelphians,  and  Christian  Believers  from 
Believers  in  Christ  ;  and  what  is  the  precise  shade  of  distinction 
between  Disciples  of  Christ  and  Disciples  in  Christ  ?  We  will  not 
ask  why  Christian  Eliasites  and  Christian  Israelites  and  Israelites 
cannot  combine,  as  we  feel  very  much  in  the  dark  as  to  what 
either  designation  may  be  intended  to  convey,  but  there  seems  a 
common  taint  of  Judaism  about  all  the  three.  Then,  again,  why 
should  there  be  no  less  than  eleven  Free  Churches,  with  various 
secondary  designations  of  Catholic,  Episcopal,  Christian,  Gospel, 
Grace  Gospel  Christian,  and  the  like  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  Lutherans,  Danish  Lutherans,  and  German  Lutherans  ? 
And  who  on  earth  are  the  German  Roman  Catholics  ? 

While  the  officers  who  collect  statistics  may  not  be 
expected  to  inquire  as  closely  as  this  writer  does,  and 
may  not  be  called  on  to  generalize  more  and  particular- 
ize less,  Christian  people  should  at  least  protest  against 
this  inadvertent  magnifying  of  an  evil  which  sorely 
reflects  on  their  piety  and  good  sense.  Matthew  Ar- 
nold satirized  the  "  dissidence  of  dissent  and  the  Protes- 
tantism of  the  Protestant  religion,"  and  a  Free  Kirk 
minister  is  reported  to  have  prayed  ''  that  we  might  all 
be  baptized  in  the  spirit  of  disruption  "  ;  but  we  ought 
to  demand  that  all  critics  should  have  strict  regard  to 
the  fact  that  the  divergences  of  faith  are  often  more 
fanciful  than  real. 

Neither  let  us  imagine  that  these  divisions  are  novel- 
ties, and  are  the  result  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany 
and  the  triumph  of  liberty  in  America.  They  are 
neither  indigenous  to  the  new  world,  nor  to  the  century 
passing  into  history.  All  or  nearly  all  of  the  various 
rival  sects  existing  within  the  territory  of  the  United 


4IO      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

States  are  to  be  found  elsewhere,  particularly,  as  we 
have  just  seen,  in  England.  Unitarians,  Episcopalians, 
Methodists,  Baptists,  Presbyterians,  and  other  bodies 
familiar  to  us  in  this  country,  have  likewise  *'  a  habita- 
tion and  a  name  "  in  other  lands,  and  even  the  unity  of 
orthodox  Russia  is  disturbed  by  "  Stundists,"  "  Molo- 
kains,"  *' Spirit-wrestlers,"  and  other  dissidents.  And 
as  there  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  allegation  that 
the  Great  Republic  is  the  fruitful  field  of  schism,  so  the 
reiterated  declaration  that  schism  is  essentially  modern 
and  the  necessary  product  of  the  Protestant  contest  and 
contention,  does  not  rest  on  adequate  historical  evidence. 
To  say  nothing  of  the  seeming  party  hues  that  occasioned 
anxiety  in  the  apostolic  churches,  we  have  at  an  early 
period  the  ri§e  of  Novatians,  Donatists,  Montanists,  and 
the  sects  which  developed  from  the  Arian  controversies. 
Later  on  we  have  the  Nestorians  and  the  Monophysites, 
the  latter  of  whom  are  still  represented  by  the  Armen- 
ian, the  Coptic,  and  the  Abyssinian  communions ;  and 
still  nearer  to  our  own  time  and  yet  before  the  Refor- 
mation, we  have  the  Waldenses,  the  Paulicians,  the 
Henricians,  the  Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  the  Lollards,  the 
Hussites,  the  Anabaptists,  and  the  Albigenses.  Nor 
does  this  list  exhaust  the  number.  Neither  should  we 
overlook  the  disruption  of  what  was  called  the  Catholic 
Church, — a  designation  first  employed  by  Ignatius  of 
Antioch  in  his  epistle  addressed  to  the  church  at 
Smyrna  in  the  second  century,  by  which  he  discrimi- 
nated between  the  universal  church  and  any  individual 
portion  of  it, — into  the  Greek  and  Latin  rites.  This 
memorable  schism,  in  its  beginnings  coincident  with 
the  division  of  the  Roman  Empire  into  East  and  West, 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  4I  I 

but  finally  determined  by  grave  ecclesiastical  issues, 
which  culminated  with  the  taking  of  Constantinople 
and  the  consequent  violent  usurpations  of  papal  author- 
ity, was  not  due  to  the  Protestant  principle,  but  rather 
to  weaknesses  and  ambitions  which  need  not  here  be 
characterized.  Such  a  breach  as  this  proves  conclu- 
sively that  the  assumption  of  too  much  authority  may 
work  as  disastrously  as  the  claim  to  too  much  freedom. 
If  the  "right  of  private  judgment  "  has  led  to  the  mul- 
tiplication of  sects  since  the  Reformation,  the  denial  of 
that  right  prior  to  the  Reformation  produced  a  similar 
harvest ;  and  even  since  then,  the  denial  has  stood  in 
the  way  of  harmony,  and  has  occasioned  and  justified 
the  ephemeral  schism  of  Ronge  and  Czerki,  the  brief 
career  of  the  **  German  Catholic  Church"  (1845),  and 
the  movement,  still  destined  to  be  heard  from,  of  the 
''Old  Catholics"  (1870),  led  at  the  beginning  by  the 
brave  and  scholarly  Dollinger. 

I  am  not  apologizing  for  existing  divisions,  when  I 
resent  the  hasty  generalizations  of  those  writers,  lay  and 
cleric,  who,  disregarding  the  facts  of  history,  arraign 
the  Protestant  Faith  as  being  almost  exclusively  and 
culpably  responsible  for  their  prevalence.  The  specta- 
cle is  sad  enough  without  rendering  it  worse  by  recrim- 
inations ;  nevertheless,  the  conventional  misrepresenta- 
tions on  the  subject  are  so  unfair  that  to  pass  them  un- 
challenged would  be  to  promote  their  circulation.  But 
in  entering  my  caveat  against  them,  I  have  no  desire  to 
overlook  the  fact  that  the  principal  business  at  this  late 
day,  is  not  so  much  to  fix  the  blame  for  the  multiplica- 
tion of  sects,  as  to  seek  to  diminish  their  number,  to 
abate  their  rivalries,  and  co-ordinate  their  forces. 


412      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

That  mischief  has  in  some  degree  and  in  various 
directions  been  wrought  by  the  sectarianism  of  Chris- 
tendom is  not  open  to  doubt.  We  may  differ  in  our 
estimate  of  the  mischief  done,  and  we  may  not  agree 
as  to  the  possibility  of  preventing  the  appearance  of 
certain  denominations  in  the  past,  but  we  cannot  help 
deploring  the  injurious  impressions  made,  and  the  loss 
of  aggressive  power  experienced  by  alienations  and 
opposing  camps.  There  is  no  question  but  that  the 
world  puts  the  very  worst  construction  possible  on  the 
existence  of  so  many  religious  schools  of  thought  and 
activity,  minimizing  the  greater  things  in  which  they 
are  one,  and  magnifying  the  lesser  things  by  which  they 
are  divided.  Attention  has  also  been  called  to  the  un- 
seemly struggles  of  feeble  churches,  professing  creeds 
hardly  differing  from  one  another  in  substance,  for  sup- 
port in  weak  and  small  communities.  It  has  been  said, 
and  said  truly,  that  there  ought  to  be  some  way  by 
which  towns  and  villages  should  be  relieved  from  the 
strain  on  their  pocket  and  their  piety,  imposed  on  both 
by  religious  factions.  When  Catholics  insist  on  invad- 
ing a  Protestant  settlement  of  two  or  three  thou- 
sand persons,  and  when  Protestants  are  represented  by 
Methodist,  Congregationalist,  and  Baptist,  with  an  Ad- 
ventist  in  addition,  may  not  the  inhabitants  be  excused 
if  their  confidence  is  somewhat  shaken  in  the  faith  they 
all  in  common  profess,  and  may  they  not  be  pardoned 
if  they  fret  at  the  financial  burden  imposed  ?  From 
such  a  state  of  things  there  ought  to  be  some  way  of 
deliverance.  Christians  ought  to  act  reasonably.  When 
the  religious  necessities  of  a  town  are  being  met,  the 
church  doing  the  work  should  not  be  hindered  or  an- 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  413 

tagonized,  because  there  may  happen  to  be  some  objec- 
tionable Filioquc  in  her  creed.  She  should  be  given  a 
free  fair  field,  and  the  pent-up  energies  and  the  re- 
sources of  other  bodies  be  expended  on  neglected  re- 
gions which  are  crying  for  cultivation. 

Moreover,  it  has  been  frequently  charged  that  secta- 
rian divisions  have  impeded  the  progress  of  the  gospel 
in  heathen  lands.  Twenty  different  Churches  we  are 
told  are  contending  with  each  other,  and  laboring  for 
the  conversion  of  the  Hindus.  And  it  is  asserted  that 
a  similar  spectacle  may  be  witnessed  in  China  and  else- 
where. I  am  certain,  however,  that  these  representa- 
tions are,  as  is  usual  in  such  discussions,  too  wide-sweep- 
ing. Missionaries  of  evangelical  societies  assure  us  that 
there  is  very  little,  if  any,  friction  between  the  teachers 
and  preachers  of  the  various  denominations.  They 
rather  co-operate  with  each  other  and  assist  one  another, 
and  refrain  from  discussions  among  themselves.  A  mis- 
sionary comity  has  likewise  been  developed  of  late  years, 
and  the  forces  at  work  are  not  being  wasted  in  unseemly 
strife.  The  evil  complained  of,  whatever  it  may  have 
been  fifty  years  ago,  is  now  one  of  appearance  mainly. 
There  is  undoubtedly  a  seeming,  an  outward  show  of 
separateness  that  must  act  unfavorably  on  the  mind  of 
the  heathen,  especially  as  he  cannot  be  expected  to  per- 
ceive the  spirit  of  unity  that  is  back  of  this  lack  of  uni- 
formity. Everything  consistent  with  honor  and  hon- 
esty should  be  done  to  correct  this  injurious  impression. 

The  principal  hindrance  to  missionary  triumph,  how- 
ever, does  not  arise  from  rivalries  between  Protes- 
tant sects,  but  springs  from  the  frequently  undisguised 
hostility   between    Roman    Catholics    and    Protestants. 


414      CHRlSTfANlTY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

When  the  French  Government  years  ago  handed  over 
the  missions  of  the  latter  in  Tahiti  to  Catholic  emissa- 
ries ;  and  when  in  Madagascar  King  Radema  was  mur- 
dered, and  these  two  great  sections  of  Christendom 
accused  each  other  of  the  crime  ;  and  when  in  1845  the 
Protestants  were  ejected  from  Fernando  Po  by  the 
Spanish  in  the  interests  of  the  hierarchy;  and  when 
Turkish  soldiers  have  been  obliged  to  preserve  the 
peace  between  the  Latin  and  Greek  communions  in  their 
unholy  strife  for  supremacy  in  the  holy  places  ;  and  when 
Protestants  have  been  violently  opposed  by  both  con- 
testants when  they  have  sought  the  sacred  shrines  of 
their  common  faith,  the  effect  on  the  unbeliever  could 
not  fail  to  be  of  the  worst  and  most  damaging  character. 
"  See  how  these  Christians  hate  one  another  "  must  be 
the  natural  feeling  and  ejaculation  in  view  of  such 
deadly,  bitter,  and  desperate  hostility.  As  long  as  it 
survives  the  advance  of  the  Cross  will  be  checked.  Thus 
at  home  and  abroad  there  is  need  for  readjustment, 
harmony,  for  better  understanding  between  Christian 
parties,  particularly  between  Romanists  and  Protestants, 
and  for  the  arrival  at  some  intelligent  conception  of  what 
kind  of  basis  is  revealed  in  Scripture  for  the  future 
union  and  co-operation  of  Christ's  disciples. 

While  the  disasters  wrought  by  dissensions  are  open 
to  all,  it  ought  not  to  be  rashly  concluded  that  the 
ecclesiastical  uniformity  which  dominated  medievalism 
was  an  unmixed  good,  or  that  it  furnishes  a  model  once 
more  to  be  copied;  and  neither  ought  it  to  be  dogmati- 
cally affirmed  that  denominationalism  in  the  progress  of 
Christianity  could  have  been  entirely  avoided,  and  has 
in  every  respect  exerted  a  pernicious  influence  on  relig- 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  4I5 

ion  and  society.  None  of  these  positions  can  be  suc- 
cessfully maintained.  It  is  well  known  that  the  con- 
dition of  the  one  church  prior  to  the  sixteenth  century 
was  deplorably  bad,  and  did  not  contribute  to  the 
spiritual  well-being  of  men  and  nations.  On  this  point 
we  have  the  testimony  of  Professor  Dollinger,  a  long- 
time instructor  in  ecclesiastical  history  at  Munich,  and 
a  devout  Roman  Catholic.  Writing  of  the  German 
Reformation,  he  says : 

It  was  a  movement  so  deeply  rooted  in  the  needs  of  the  age, 
and  sprang  so  inevitably  from  the  ecclesiastical  conditions  of  the 
centuries  immediately  preceding,  that  it  took  possession  of  all  the 
nations  of  the  West  in  turn.  So  powerfully  did  it  sway  men's 
minds  in  Italy,  the  native  home  of  the  papacy,  that  Paul  IV.  de- 
clared the  Inquisition,  with  its  dungeons  and  blazing  pyres,  to  be 
the  only  sure  and  firm  support  of  the  papacy  there.  .  .  And 
more  than  this  too,  the  popes  themselves  could  not  deny — for  it 
was  notorious — that  Rome  itself  v/as  the  seat  and  source  of  cor- 
ruption, and  the  popes  its  authors  and  disseminators.  Adrian 
VI.  had  it  openly  proclaimed  at  the  diet  of  Nuremburg,  1522, 
that  everything  in  the  church  had  been  perverted,  and  a  disease 
had  spread  from  the  head  to  the  members,  from  the  popes  to  the 
rest  of  the  rulers  of  the  church. 

And  in  contrast  with  this  degeneration,  he  refers  to  the 
higher  morality,  and  stricter  discipline  distinguishing  the 
smaller  religious  communities ;  and  farther  on  he  adds : 

Nor  can  we  blind  ourselves  to  the  fact  that  the  Reformation 
has  had  many  beneficial  results,  and  has  in  various  ways  proved 
a  gain  even  to  the  ancient  church  which  was  so  hostile  to  it.  We 
see  that  it  has  created  a  rich  intellectual  world,  and  given  an 
impulse  to  every  form  of  mental  activity.  It  has  become  the 
most  powerful  and  permanent  force  in  modern  history.^ 

^  "  Reunion  of  the  Churches,"  pp.  61,  65,  and  5,  12. 


4l6      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

When  we  read  these  words,  not  penned  on  behalf  of 
Protestantism,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  encouraghig 
divisions,  we  are  ahnost  tempted  to  agree  with  James 
Madison,  who  in  the  ''Federalist  "  expressed  this  judg- 
ment : 

In  a  free  government  the  security  for  civil  rights  must  be  the 
same  as  that  for  religious  rights.  It  consists,  in  the  one  case,  in 
the  multiplicity  of  interests,  and,  in  the  other,  in  the  multiplicity 
of  sects.  The  degree  of  security  in  both  cases  will  depend  on  the 
number  of  interests  and  sects. 

But  happily  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  so  far  as  this  in 
recognizing  the  perils  described  by  Dollinger,  which 
threatened  everything  sacred  and  worth  saving  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  wretched  plight  of  the  church 
at  that  time  proves  that  uniformity  is  not  everything, 
and  that,  when  fashioned  after  the  medieval  type,  it 
may  serve  to  foster  corruption  and  tyranny.  Sectarian- 
ism is  bad  enough,  and  ought  as  far  as  possible  to  be 
discouraged  ;  but  if  the  twentieth  century  has  to  choose 
between  it  and  a  uniformity  similar  to  the  one  con- 
demned by  Dollinger,  then  without  a  moment's  hesita- 
tion the  latter  should  be  rejected. 

And  this  decision  will  be  reached  with  less  hesitancy 
when  the  debt  of  society  to  dissent  is  taken  into  con- 
sideration. The  benefits  conferred  by  the  Huguenots 
on  France  ;  the  splendid  achievements  of  the  Noncon- 
formists in  England  ;  and  the  heroic  service  to  civiliza- 
tion and  progress  of  the  various  churches  in  America, 
may  well  reconcile  the  world  to  the  loss  of  sameness 
in  outward  form  and  ceremony.  These  denominations 
in  the  countries  named,  have  been  the  constant  cham- 
pions of  civil  and  of  personal  freedom  ;  they  have  led  in 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  41/ 

movements,  public  and  private,  for  the  enlightenment 
of  the  masses  ;  they  have  been  the  ardent  supporters  of 
reform,  the  spirit  of  Luther  reappearing  in  them  and 
clamoring  against  abuses  in  government,  in  industry, 
and  in  social  habits ;  and  in  America,  they  have  con- 
quered the  savage  wilderness,  have  dotted  the  prairies 
with  schools  and  churches,  and  have  extended  a  Chris- 
tian civilization  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  It 
has  been  admitted  that  the  brilliant  deeds  they  have 
wrought  could  not  have  been  accomplished  so  speedily 
or  so  thoroughly  by  a  great  consolidated  historical 
hierarchy.  What  America  is  to-day,  morally  and  spirit- 
ually, is  primarily  due  to  the  aggressive,  self-sacrificing 
endeavors  of  Methodists,  Congregationalists,  Baptists, 
Presbyterians,  and  other  so-called  sects  ;  and  though 
these  bodies  are  sometimes  spoken  of  contemptuously, 
and  though  the  effort  is  being  made  to  overshadow 
them,  and  to  obscure  what  they  have  done  by  the  pom- 
pous splendor  of  sacerdotalism,  it  is  manifest  that 
America  would  have  been  immeasurably  poorer  than 
she  is  in  those  things  which  make  for  national  strength 
and  dignity  but  for  their  ministry ;  and  that  it  would 
be  better  for  her  future,  if  there  is  no  other  alternative, 
that  she  should  perpetually  consent  to  be  distracted  by 
numerous  sects,  whose  labors  on  the  whole  have  proven 
beneficial,  than  to  risk  the  dangerous  supremacy  of  a 
single  church  patterned  after  that  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
If  in  criticising  and  deploring  schisms  it  is  unfair  not 
to  take  into  account  the  advantages  that  have  been  de- 
rived from  them,  so  it  is  also  ungenerous  to  speak  of 
them  as  having  had  their  origin  in  a  desire  for  division 
or  in  a  blind  devotion  to   metaphysical  and   trivial  doc- 

2B 


4l8      CHRISTIANITY    IN    tHE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

trinal  distinctions.  Several  of  them  owe  their  existence 
in  this  century  to  peculiar  conditions,  some  of  them 
developed  from  abuses  ;  and  most  of  them  have  vindi- 
cated their  right  to  organize  themselves  into  churches 
by  the  practical  services  they  have  rendered  the  kingdom 
of  Christ.  The  separation  of  the  Unitarians  from  the 
Trinitarians  in  the  United  States,  beginning  really  with 
the  impossibility  of  obtaining  from  bishops  Seabury  and 
Provoost  episcopal  ordination  for  James  Freeman  (1785), 
was  not  the  result  of  a  deliberate  plan  to  rend  the 
church,  but  was  the  logical  outcome  of  radically  diver- 
gent opinion.  The  situation  became  unendurable  to 
the  conservative  party  when  Henry  Ware,  a  Unitarian, 
was  chosen  to  the  divinity  professorship  (1805)  on  the 
Hollis  foundation.  To  coalesce  any  longer  was  con- 
sidered impracticable.  But  the  division  was  preferable 
to  the  war  of  words,  and  to  the  distractions  of  contro- 
versy, which  were  surely  undermining  the  stability  of 
the  church  in  New  England.  Moreover,  the  contending 
parties  living  together  in  the  same  house,  on  account  of 
the  domestic  feuds,  could  hardly  be  expected  to  do 
justice  to  each  other's  aims,  motives,  and  piety.  But 
moving  apart,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  street,  they  were 
in  a  better  position  to  observe  the  worth  of  those  with 
whom  they  had  been  in  controversy.  And  thus  divided, 
without  sacrificing  their  doctrinal  convictions,  they  have 
been  able  to  cherish  a  neighborly  spirit,  to  perform 
neighborly  acts,  and  to  acknowledge  generously  what 
they  respectively  owe,  on  the  one  side  to  Channing, 
Freeman  Clarke,  and  Edward  Everett  Hale,  and  on  the 
other  to  Phillips  Brooks,  Rollin  H.  Neale,  James  Man- 
ning, and  Edward  Kirk. 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  419 

Chalmers  and  Candlish,  with  some  three  hundred 
and  forty  ministerial  associates,  had  no  wish  to  abandon 
the  Scotch  Establishment  when  they  went  out  in  1843 
and  founded  the  Free  Kirk.  But  the  Headship  of 
Christ  in  his  own  empire  was  at  stake.  Was  he  to 
govern,  or  was  his  prerogative  to  be  usurped  by  worldly 
patrons  ?  Were  heads  of  families  to  be  permitted  to 
cancel  ministerial  appointments  without  giving  valid 
and  tangible  reasons  ?  How  could  any  interference 
on  their  part  be  harmonized  with  the  teachings  of 
Christ's  word  ?  The  issue  was  made,  and  the  great 
disruption  occurred.  And  was  it  not  better  for  the 
cause  of  religion  in  Scotland  and  elsewhere  that  our 
Lord's  crown-rights  should  be  maintained,  even  though 
visible  unity  had  to  be  sacrificed,  than  that  his  church 
should  lose  her  independence  and  spiritual  character  ? 
It  is  easy  to  criticise,  easy  to  talk  with  rhetorical  vague- 
ness about  the  sin  of  rending  the  seamless  robe  of 
Christ,  but  when  the  very  regal  robe  itself  is  in  jeop- 
ardy, is  it  not  preferable  to  clutch  at  it  and  preserve  it, 
though  torn,  than  to  abandon  it  whole  to  those  who 
would  hide  it  beneath  their  worldly  ecclesiastical  pomps 
and  vanities  ?  I,  for  one,  am  grateful  to  God  for 
Chalmers  and  his  heroic  colleagues,  and  believe  that 
Christ  is  more  likely  everywhere  to  be  recognized  as 
the  only  and  supreme  Head  of  the  Church,  through  their 
protest  and  their  manly  renunciation  of  sacred  fellow- 
ships and  lifelong  ties. 

In  the  United  States,  about  the  time  disruption  was 
maturing  in  Scotland,  there  developed  a  movement, 
sometimes  traced  to  the  indirect  influence  of  the  Hal- 
danes  and  to    the    theory  known  as  Sandemanianism, 


420      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

both  also  of  Scotland,  and  inspired  by  the  genius  of 
Alexander  Campbell,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  relig- 
ious leaders  of  the  nineteenth  century.  To  this  new 
de})arture  the  name  of  its  founder  was  given  by  the 
community  at  large  ;  but  its  adherents  called  themselves 
"  Christians,"  and  ''  Disciples."  I  shall  term  them 
*'  Disciples  "  in  this  brief  reference  to  their  progress 
and  mission.  They  were  an  earnest  and  aggressive 
people,  and  probably  are  so  still,  and  multiplied  rapidly 
in  the  South  and  southwestern  portions  of  the  country. 
Their  peculiar  tenets  gave  rise  to  much  controversy, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  summary  could  be  given 
that  would  prove  satisfactory  to  their  advocates.  But 
there  was  one  teaching  for  which  they  were  distinguished 
that  concerns  us  here.  They  raised  their  voice  against 
sectarianism  and  announced  themselves  as  its  destroyer. 
It  seems  that  they  imagined  they  had  abolished  it  as 
far  as  they  themselves  were  concerned  by  taking  to 
themselves  the  name  of  Disciples,  by  professing  to  de- 
rive all  their  sentiments  from  the  New  Testament,  and 
by  organizing  themselves  into  another  sect,  yet  further 
dividing  the  body  of  Christ.  The  word  ''sect"  from 
the  Latin  sccta,  a  path,  a  beaten  way,  hence  to  follow, 
is  always  applied  to  a  portion  of  the  Christian  host,  and 
never  to  it  as  a  whole  ;  and  consequently,  the  Disciples 
have  to  assume  that  they  are  the  totality  of  the  re- 
deemed on  earth — which  I  am  sure  they  would  not  as- 
sert— or  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word  they  constitute 
a  sect.  In  spirit  they  may  be  as  catholic  as  the  most 
catholic  soul  could  wish,  but  that  does  not  alter  the  fact 
that  when  they  withdrew  and  set  up  for  themselves  they 
either  became  the  whole  of   Christianity  or  a  part,  and 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  42 1 

if  a  part,  then  they  became  what  they  labored  to  con- 
vince others  it  was  wrong  to  be.  Nevertheless,  the 
value  of  their  testimony  is  not  to  be  depreciated.  It 
meant  something  to  have  this  large  number  of  intelli- 
gent people  join  together  in  a  protest  against  the  strife 
and  discord  of  Christian  churches.  And  the  seeming 
impossibility  of  their  escaping  from  the  entanglement 
they  condemned  only  added  pathos  and  power  to  their 
plea.  It  indicated  that  even  when  there  is  no  sectarian- 
ism in  the  heart,  we  are  obliged  to  affiliate  with  a  sect 
to  gain  a  fulcrum  for  our  spiritual  leverage.  Hardly 
anything  more  than  this  is  needed  to  demonstrate  that 
the  Disciples  are  right  in  their  contention,  and  that 
some  measures  looking  toward  unification  should  be 
adopted.  They  are  entitled  to  commendation  for  their 
devotion  to  a  vital  principle,  and  one  that  is  destined  to 
exert  an  incalculable  influence  on  the  Christianity  of 
the  immediate  future. 

And  as  we  respect  their  aims  and  motives,  we  ought 
to  honor  other  sectaries,  and  not  in  the  superficial  way, 
unhappily  too  common,  ridicule  and  deride,  as  though 
they  had  without  sense  or  reason  rushed  into  secession. 
How  could  the  Universalists  have  acted  otherwise  than 
they  have  ?  They  were  compelled  either  to  remain 
silent  and  hide  their  convictions,  or  to  create  for  them- 
selves a  free  arena  where  these  could  be  openly  advo- 
cated. The  Cumberland  Presbyterians,  likewise,  had 
hardly  any  other  alternative  open  to  them.  But  for 
their  determination  that  the  ministry  of  the  word  should 
not  be  restricted  to  classically  educated  men,  the  world 
might  have  been  deprived  of  such  preachers  as  Charles 
Haddon  Spurgeon   and  such  evangelists  as  Dwight   L. 


422      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Moody.  We  ought  not  even  to  be  too  ready  with 
caustic  criticisms  when  the  Irvingites,  and  their  singu- 
lar ''  CathoHc  Apostolic  "  angels  and  rituals,  pass  before 
us,  and  the  Plymouth  Brethren,  and  the  various  Advent 
bodies,  following  the  discredited  predictions  of  Miller  in 
1843,  join  the  strange  procession;  for  they  represent 
conscientious  convictions,  pathetic  gropings  in  the  dark, 
and  the  sacred  enthusiasm  that  surrenders  the  praise  of 
men,  and  often  the  comforts  of  life,  for  the  sake  of  an 
idea.  And  it  is  not  so  certain,  but  rather  otherwise, 
that  they  have  not  done  as  much  good  in  their  way  as 
Theosophists,  Ethical  Culturists,  and  Free  Religionists, 
who  are  usually  taken  seriously  by  society  and  shown 
the  most  marked  consideration.  These  also  are  enti- 
tled to  respect.  But  while  I  plead  for  this  kind  of 
fair  and  sympathetic  treatment,  these  denominations, 
and  the  larger  and  older  ones,  should  remember  that 
they  have  delivered  their  message,  and  that,  in  so  far  as 
it  is  sane  and  scriptural,  it  has  been  widely  accepted  by 
the  bodies  most  closely  allied  to  them,  and  therefore 
the  time  has  arrived  for  a  new  departure  by  which 
present  divisions  may  gradually  give  way  to  a  new  and 
lasting:  union. 

For  this  many  earnest  souls  have  pleaded  during  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  for  this  many  meetings  have 
been  held  and  various  measures  recommended.  Of  the 
strength  and  significance  of  this  gracious  movement  a 
recent  writer  has  taken  account,  and  expresses  himself 
in  these  encouraging  words  : 

There  are  signs  in  the  clouds  of  the  ecclesiastical  sky  that  the 
church  has  no  rest  in  her  divisions  ;  and  the  feeling  is  deepen- 
ing, that  all  who  equally  center   in   Christ,  and  call  him   Lord, 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  423 

ought  to  be  one.  Did  he  not  pray  that  they  all  might  be  one  ? 
And  will  he  not  fulfill  his  own  prayers  ?  Is  not  the  breath  of  his 
power  stealing  on  all  the  churches  ?  And  must  w^e  not  ascribe 
their  concern  for  unity  to  his  secret  working  ?  The  demonstra- 
tion before  the  nations  of  the  world  of  their  actual  unity  would  be 
nothing  less  than  the  inauguration  of  the  kingdom  and  reign  of 
Christ  :  he  must  reign,  till  all  powers  and  governments  are  sub- 
ject to  him.  If  a  strong  majority  of  the  churches  would  declare 
and  manifest  their  unity,  not  necessarily  in  their  creeds  and  forms 
of  worship,  but  in  the  one  spirit  of  Christ,  those  who  affect  to  be 
under  Christ,  and  stand  aloof  from  unity,  would  feel  that  they 
were  rebuked  and  humiliated.  And  it  would  stand  revealed  that 
they  stiffly  and  stubbornly  held  to  the  tombs  and  dry  bones  of 
antiquity  ;  and  would  not  allow  the  living  Christ  of  to-day  to  in- 
fluence them,^ 

At  Lambeth  and  the  Vatican  this  subject  has  occu- 
pied the  attention  of  prelates  and  popes,  and  while  they 
have  not  agreed  as  to  terms,  and  while  some  of  the 
terms  talked  about  are  as  impossible  to  men  of  this  age 
as  would  be  the  demand  that  the  Ptolemaic  system  of 
astronomy  be  accepted  as  a  basis  for  the  union  of  vari- 
ous scientific  schools,  neverthless,  it  is  a  hopeful  sign 
that  these  dignitaries  have  been  constrained  by  what  is 
taking  place  in  the  world  to  commit  themselves  in  prin- 
ciple to  the  reunion  of  Christendom.  His  Holiness, 
Leo  XHL,  seems  to  be  ingenuously  oblivious  to  the  in- 
congruity involved  in  his  encyclical  (1893)  on  this 
theme,  when  in  the  closing  paragraphs  he  offers  certain 
"indulgences,"  overlooking  the  fact  that  ''indulgences" 
were  responsible  at  the  first  for  the  secession  from  the 
Roman  Church.  But  not  only  have  eminent  ecclesias- 
tics   spoken,    they    and    others    have    written    on    this 

1  "Stray  Thoughts  of  a  Lifetime,"  by  Dr.  J,  Pulsford,  p.   220. 


424      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

momentous  topic.^  Magazine  articles  have  been  pro- 
duced in  abundance,  newspaper  controversies  have  been 
frequent,  sermons  and  pamphlets  have  multiplied  like 
the  leaves,  and  the  question  of  Christian  union  has  been 
presented  in  almost  every  light,  clear  and  obscure, 
and  from  every  conceivable  angle.  And  not  satisfied 
with  writings,  the  friends  of  the  cause  have  organized 
Evangelical  Alliances,  unity  clubs.  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Associations,  federations  of  churches,  undenom- 
inational evangelistic  services,  non-sectarian  fraterni- 
ties. Endeavor  societies,  and  different  kinds  of  benevo- 
lent enterprises.  These  movements  indicate  a  scarcely 
disguised  impatience  with  the  barriers  that  separate  one 
denomination  from  the  other,  and  a  determination  to 
ignore  them  or  find  a  way  through  them  to  the  realiza- 
tion of  that  brotherhood  which  is  symbolized  in  the 
sacrament,  of  whose  significance  the  poet  sings  • 

The  Holy  Supper  is  kept  indeed, 

In  whatso  we  share  with  another' s  need  : 

Not  what  we  give,  but  what  we  share — 

For  the  gift  without  the  giver  is  bare  ; 

Who  gives  himself  with  his  alms  feeds  three — 

Himself,  his  hungering  neighbor,  and  Me." 

There  is  a  growing  impression  in  the  Protestant  world 
that  sectarianism  obscures  this  sacred  meaning,  and 
that  its  sweetness  will  never  be  fully  experienced  until 

^  Among  the  many  books  dealing  with  the  subject  may  be  mentioned 
^^  Pax  Vobiscitf/i,'^  Bamberg,  1863;  "An  Zu'rem'con,^ '  Vusey's  contri- 
bution, London,  1865  ;  Messner's  '■'•  Nene  Evang.,^^  1866,  and  Bollin- 
ger's "Reunion  of  the  Churches,"  Munich,  1871  ;  but  to  do  justice  to 
the  literature  created  by  its  discussion  would  demand  another  volume  of 
no  small  dimensions. 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  425 

sectarian  lines  have  been  rendered  indistinct.  Conse- 
quently, among  the  laity  there  is  a  widespread  indiffer- 
ence to  denominational  restraints,  witnessed  by  the 
ease  with  which  membership  is  now  transferred  from 
one  church  to  another,  and  the  positive  dislike  of  what 
is  known  as  denominational  sermons.  Official  Boards 
and  clergymen  may  blind  themselves  to  the  signs  of 
the  times;  but  just  the  same  they  indicate  a  weariness 
with  divisions,  and  a  growing  scorn  of  unnecessary 
schisms.  Nor  is  it  safe  to  ignore  the  rising  tide  of  senti- 
ment that  surges  against  the  dikes  by  which  one  church 
is  cut  off  from  all  the  others.  It  must  be  taken  into 
account  and  be  dealt  with  intelligently,  or  disasters  may 
follow.  In  what  respects  it  may  be  unreasonable  must 
be  shown  ;  in  what  regards  it  may  be  impracticable  must 
be  explained  ;  and  in  what  measure  and  by  what  methods 
its  legitimate  aspirations  may  be  fulfilled  must  be  ascer- 
tained and  advocated. 

The  belief  is  cherished  by  some  people  that  only  a 
comprehensive  scheme  of  church  nationalization  can 
effect  the  restoration  of  Christian  union.  But  were  this 
successful,  whatever  else  it  might  be,  it  would  not  be  the 
revival  of  the  "  primitive  "  union ;  for  at  the  beginning 
bishops  were  not  welcome  at  court,  and  the  congrega- 
tions of  the  saints,  while  paying  tribute  to  Caesar,  never 
for  a  moment  thought  of  making  him  their  ruler.  It  is, 
however,  very  questionable  whether  the  church  made 
national  would  be  better  off  than  to-day  when  it  is  in- 
dependent, and  whether  this  change  would  succeed  in 
arresting  schisms.  Judging  from  what  we  know  of  this 
method  where  it  has  been  tried,  we  have  not  sufficient 
reason  to  be  sanguine  of  its  efficacy.      The  experiment 


426      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

in  New  England  was  never  satisfactory,  and  it  was  a 
great  relief,  when  with  the  nineteenth  century  it  was 
brought  to  a  definite  termination.  Germany,  however, 
nothing  deterred  by  failures  in  other  lands,  adopted  it 
in  18 1 7.  Under  Frederic  William  III.  the  consistories 
of  Prussia  were  superseded  by  royal  commissions  for  the 
direction  of  ecclesiastial  affairs,  and  he  ordered  his 
Lutheran  and  Calvinist  subjects  to  unite  in  one  fold 
over  which  he  himself  would  be  the  supreme  shepherd. 
Dogmatic  standards  were  quietly  set  aside,  theology  was 
discredited,  and  the  descendants  of  Luther  were  to 
become  one,  not  on  the  basis  of  an  intelligent  faith,  but 
on  the  foundation  of  a  non-committal  and  colorless 
liturgy.  These  extreme  measures  went  so  far  that  a 
cabinet  order  of  1839  abolished  the  name  of  Protestant. 
The  spiritual  autocracy  of  the  secular  arm  has  in  some 
respects  been  modified  by  concessions  made  to  synods  ; 
but  notwithstanding  these  amiable  surrenders,  since 
1870  the  emperor,  lord  paramount,  has  in  reality  been 
the  pope  of  Germany.  Think  what  kind  of  system  this 
is  by  which  a  war-lord,  like  the  present  kaiser,  becomes 
the  head  of  an  organization  whose  mission  on  the  earth 
is  peace.  It  is  as  though  a  wolf,  "  red  in  tooth  and 
claw,"  were  inaugurated  monarch  over  a  sheepfold.  If 
anything  were  really  needed  to  show  the  childishness 
and  absurdity  of  the  national  church  idea,  we  have  it  in 
the  primacy  of  an  imperator,  who,  notwithstanding  his 
acknowledged  abilities,  has  never  given  any  proof  of 
spiritual  discernment. 

Put  when  in  Germany  the  Church  was  subordinated 
to  the  State,  the  reign  of  schism  was  not  brought  to  a 
close.      Pastor  Harms  saw  clearly  what  would  inevita- 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  427 

bly  follow.  Conviction,  reason,  independence  could 
not  be  entirely  stifled  by  the  mandate  of  a  king.  Hence, 
Scheibel,  Steffens,  Huschke,  and  other  prominent  Lu- 
therans revolted  in  1830,  and  since  then,  so  far  as  I  can 
judge,  sects  have  multiplied  in  Germany.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century  in  that  country  only 
Moravians  and  Mennonites  were  conspicuous  as  dis- 
senters from  the  main  body  of  believers.  But  according 
to  recent  statistics  there  are  now  within  the  same  na- 
tionality six  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixteen  Mora- 
vians, twenty-two  thousand  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
Mennonites,  twenty-nine  thousand  and  seventy-four  Bap- 
tists, ten  thousand  one  hundred  and  forty-four  Metho- 
dists, five  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty-nine  English 
and  Scotch  Episcopalians  and  Presbyterians,  and  six 
thousand  four  hundred  and  eighty-two  unnamed.  These 
communions  are  increasing  in  numbers  and  influence, 
and  rationalism  has  not  given  signs  of  serious  decline. 
Therefore,  it  is  clear  that  nationalizing  the  church  has 
not  composed  differences,  and  neither  has  it  stimulated 
faith  in  religion.  One  of  the  strongest  arguments  in 
favor  of  Christian  union  is  that  which  maintains  its 
power  to  convince  the  skeptic  and  diminish  unbelief. 
The  reasoning  is  sound,  and  if  this  result  has  not  been 
attained  in  Germany  it  must  be  because  the  method  of 
union  raises  more  doubts  than  it  allays,  and  demonstrates 
its  own  faultiness  by  the  infidelity  it  fosters. 

And  that  it  should  operate  in  this  manner  is  the  most 
natural  thing  imaginable.  The  meaning  of  the  word 
"  State-Church  "  {Laiides-kircJie)  came  out  of  the  vener- 
able tradition  which  descended  to  all  nations  that  once 
formed  part  of  the  Roman  Empire,  that  the  religion  of 


428      ClIRlSTJAxXlTY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

the  sovereign  is  by  an  inevitable  law  the  religion  of  his 
subjects.  Through  the  Middle  Ages  this  principle  was 
generally  accepted,  and  though  the  Reformation  called 
it  in  question,  it  never  was  entirely  annulled.  The 
treaty  of  Westphalia,  1648,  which  ended  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  provided  the  following  agreement  :  Evan- 
gelical people  under  Roman  Catholic  rulers,  and  Roman 
Catholics  under  evangelical  governments,  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  worship  unmolested,  as  they  did  in  1624.  But 
those  who  in  the  future  go  over  to  a  religion  differing 
from  the  faith  of  their  ruler  shall  be  wholly  at  his  mercy, 
to  be  tolerated  or  to  be  banished  from  his  dominions. 
This  covenant,  therefore,  recognized  anew  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  monarch  in  religion,  and  fastened  on  Chris- 
tianity the  monstrous  assumption  of  paganism,  that  the 
imperator  was  a  '^ prcescns  Divus.''  Lucan  and  Lucan's 
uncle,  Seneca,  ridiculed  this  exaltation  of  rulers,  like 
Claudius,  over  the  gods  of  the  empire,  and  the  poet 
urged  the  champions  of  freedom  to  die  that  in  Tartarus 
they  might  crush  the  tyrants  whom  Rome  had  adored 
as  divinities.'  It  is  not  sufficient  to  say  that  the  treaty 
of  Westphalia  never  countenanced  the  worship  of  earth- 
ly kings,  for,  while  it  never  authorized  formal  homage 
of  that  kind,  yet  when  they  become  the  dispensers  of 
patronage,  and  when  their  thought  is  to  be  accepted  as 
the  last  word  on  matters  pertaining  to  the  soul's  highest 
interests,  submission  to  such  arbitrary  dictation  and 
dependence  on  such  sovereign  favor  constitute  the  real 
worship,  and  all  that  goes  on  in  cathedral  or  chapel 
service  is  merely  empty  show.  Thinking  men  have  felt 
this  keenly.      Multitudes,  who  have  had  respect  for  their 

1  Froude's  :  "  Divus  Casar.''^ 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  429 

intelligence  and  veneration  for  mental  honesty,  have 
simply  been  driven  by  this  paganized  Christian  abso- 
lutism away  from  Christianity.  They  know  very  well 
that  Jesus  Christ  never  taught  anything  that  could  be 
construed  into  a  sanction  for  these  high-handed  pro- 
ceedings on  the  part  of  kings ;  and,  therefore,  they  con- 
cluded, if  they  were  not  to  be  permitted  to  be  his  dis- 
ciples they  would  not  insult  their  higher  nature  by 
permitting  it  to  be  the  plaything  of  rulers  and  their 
cabinets,  who  were,  as  frequently  as  otherwise,  flushed 
with  wine  or  ambition  when  they  were  determining  the 
fortunes  of  the  church.  And  still,  whenever  the  na- 
tional idea  is  supreme,  it  tends  to  alienate  many  of  the 
best  and  most  thoughtful  people  of  the  land  from  the 
ancient  faith.  Instead  of  overcoming  doubt,  it  increases 
doubt,  and  instead  of  harmonizing  contending  creeds, 
it  only  seems  to  impart  a  note  of  bitterness  to  those 
who  are  beyond  the  pale  of  government  approval,  and 
to  those  that  are  high  in  State  favor  a  tone  of  super- 
cilious arrogance. 

Nor  is  this  impression  lessened  by  what  we  know  of 
national  churches  in  France  and  Great  Britain.  Napo- 
leon was  the  first  of  the  French  monarchs  who  placed 
Catholics  and  Protestants  on  an  equality  before  the  law, 
not  unifying  them  and  making  them  one  organization, 
but  relating  them  on  similar  terms  to  the  State.  Prior 
to  that,  in  1787,  through  the  efforts  of  Rabaut-S- 
Etienne,  Lafayette,  and  their  sympathizers,  Louis  XVL 
had  been  induced  to  sign  the  '^  Edit  de  Tolerance,'' 
which  granted  to  Protestants  the  right  to  live  in 
France,  to  marry  legally,  and  the  privilege  of  regis- 
tering births  and  deaths.      But  the  revolution  breaking 


430      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

out,  this  edict  was  superseded  by  the  "  Declaration  des 
droits  dc  IWioinrnCj''  through  which  the  ''Assemble  Con- 
stitJtantc,''  banished  all  inequality  which  existed  be- 
tween the  '*  religionnaircs  "  and  the  "  Catholics."  These 
changes,  however,  prepared  the  way  for  the  famous  law 
of  Napoleon,  promulgated  i8th  of  Germinal,  year  X. 
(April  7th,  1802),  by  which  Protestants  were  put  on  the 
same  footing  with  Catholics,  and  their  pastors  drew 
their  salaries  from  the  public  treasury.  In  this  way 
the  Reformed  Church  ceased  to  be  a  free  church,  and 
its  general  Synods  and  its  old  **  Collogues,"  were  sup- 
pressed. Ecclesiastical  power  was  handed  over  to  the 
*'  Consistoires,''  which  alone  could  communicate  with 
government,  and  very  soon  these  passed  into  the  keep- 
ing of  the  rich,  and  developed  into  a  despotism.  The 
^^Tenriir  blanc/ic,'"  as  it  is  called,  purged  the  Reformed 
Church  to  some  extent  of  this  reproach,  and  after  18 16, 
her  affairs  were  in  a  more  promising  condition.  But 
under  the  preaching  of  Robert  Haldane  and  Charles 
Cook,  a  spiritual  quickening  occurred  ;  a  Bible  Society 
was  founded,  18 19,  and  the  apathy,  which  had  come 
with  increasing  respectability  to  the  Protestant  party  in 
the  Establishment,  was  seriously  disturbed.  The  liberals 
were  aroused  and  protested  against  the  revival  of  evan- 
gelicalism, and  ultimately  the  men  and  women  who  had 
embraced  it  most  fervently  felt  impelled  to  withdraw 
from  the  Establishment,  and  organize  churches  of  their 
own,  to  be  known  as  ''Free  Churches  of  France." 
Among  the  leaders  of  this  movement  (1848),  we  find 
the  names  of  Count  de  Gasparin  and  Frederic  Monod  ; 
and  on  the  twentieth  of  August,  1849,  was  established 
the  *'  Union  des  Eglise  Evangeliqnc  Libre s  de  France^'' 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  43 1 

founded  on  the  gospel  and  on  the  separation  of  the 
Church  from  the  State.  At  present  there  are  thirty- 
six  churches  in  the  union,  with  twenty-two  mission 
stations,  forty-five  pastors,  fifteen  evangeUsts,  three 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighteen  members,  and 
about  twelve  thousand  hearers  ;  and  to  these  bodies 
must  be  added  the  Lutherans,  Baptists,  and  Methodists, 
whose  numbers,  however,  are  very  inconsiderable,  and 
they  are  separated  from  the  Free  Churches.  During  the 
recent  jubilee  of  the  union  it  was  declared  by  Pastor 
Roger  that  the  dreams  of  its  founders  had  not  been 
fulfilled.  Doubtless  many  unforeseen  diflficulties  have 
prevented  their  realization.  But  the  existence  of  the 
union,  with  the  division  between  the  Reformed  and 
Catholic  portions  of  the  State  Church,  and  the  continued 
dissensions  within  the  Reformed  Church  between  liberals 
and  conservatives  prove  to  a  demonstration,  whatever 
else  government  may  do,  by  no  process  of  nationalizing 
religion  can  it  abolish  sectarianism. 

And  the  more  completely  the  scheme  is  enforced, 
and  the  more  consistently  it  is  applied,  the  more  dis- 
tasteful it  becomes,  and  the  more  prolific  in  misunder- 
standings and  unworthy  schisms.  Of  this  the  religious 
condition  of  Great  Britain  furnishes  ample  evidence. 
The  rulers  of  that  country  in  the  main  have  evinced 
the  strongest  hostility  to  the  political  supremacy  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  have  adhered  to  the  idea  of  a 
State  Church.  William  the  Conqueror  (1066),  while 
himself  a  strict  Catholic,  laid  down  these  three  rules  : 

First.  That  neither  the  pope,  the  pope's  representative,  nor 
letters  from  the  pope,  should  be  received  in  England  without  his 
leave.      Second.    That  no  meeting  of   church  authorities  should 


43^      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

be  called  on  to  take  any  action  without  his  leave.  Third.  That 
no  baron  or  servant  of  his  should  be  expelled  from  the  church 
without  his  leave. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  the  first  statute  of  PrcBimi- 
nire  was  enacted,  by  which  all  appeals  from  the  king's 
court  of  justice  to  the  popes  was  forbidden.  These 
underlying  principles  are  involved  in  the  constitution  of 
the  existing  Anglican  Establishment.  On  three  impor- 
tant ''Acts"  the  Reformed  Church  of  England  has 
been  built :  the  Act  of  the  Submission  of  the  Clergy, 
the  Act  of  the  Supremacy  of  the  Crown,  and  the  Acts 
of  Uniformity,  determining  belief  and  worship.  By  the 
first,  the  government  of  the  church  was  withdrawn 
from  ecclesiastical  authority,  except  as  allowed  and  de- 
fined by  the  crown  and  parliament.  By  the  second, 
the  right  of  the  laity,  as  represented  by  national  sover- 
eignty, to  rule  and  control  the  national  church  was 
established.  And  by  the  third,  the  doctrines  and  liturgy 
to  be  believed  and  practised  were  determined,  from 
which  it  is  as  illegal  to  depart  as  it  is  to  violate  the 
moral  code,  whether  the  recalcitrant  be  presbyter, 
priest,  or  prelate. 

It  is  evident  from  these  enactments  that  no  changes 
in  the  creed  or  prayer-book  can  be  made  without  the 
consent  of  the  duly  appointed  secular  authorities,  and 
that,  consequently,  a  church  that  consents  to  become 
nationalized  after  this  fashion  yields  her  independence, 
and  while  professing  not  to  be  of  this  world,  yet  exalts 
this  world,  in  the  person  of  its  rulers,  to  be  her  chief. 
How  the  many  brilliant  and  devout  men,  whose  scholar- 
ship and  piety  we  all  recognize,  can  endure  the  humili- 
ating position  of  the  English   Establishment  it  is  diffi- 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  433 

cult  to  explain.  Their  acquiescence  may  simply  be  the 
result  of  education  ;  or  it  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
hesitancy  of  the  authorities  to  interfere  with  departures 
from  the  rubric,  unless  they  are  flagrant  and  the  occa- 
sion of  excesses,  such  as  have  grown  out  of  recent 
Romanizing  tendencies  which  have  excited  the  opposi- 
tion of  Mr.  Kensit  and  his  followers ;  or  it  may  spring 
from  the  ecclesiastical  habit  of  preferring  to  leave  things 
as  they  are,  and  not  look  too  closely  into  the  founda- 
tions on  which  they  rest.  But,  however  satisfactory  the 
existing  order  may  seem  to  be  to  the  great  mass  of  the 
English  Church,  there  is  widespread  dissatisfaction  be- 
yond her  borders.  The  parties  within  her  own  bosom, 
the  remarkable  progress  of  Nonconformist  bodies,  and 
the  growing  union  between  them,  are  proving  conclu- 
sively that  a  national  church  does  not  and  cannot  abate 
denominationalism  ;  but  that,  judging  from  England,  it 
rather  intensifies  than  lessens  the  evil,  and  that  in  ex- 
changing her  independence  for  State  support  she  does 
not  gain  in  dignity  and  loses  much  in  genuine  power. 
These  facts  and  inferences  ought  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration by  the  persons  who  imagine  that  a  national 
church  in  America  would  cure  our  sectarianism,  and 
increase  the  vigor  of  evangelical  faith.  To  accomplish 
the  latter,  we  might  perhaps  consent  to  waive  our  ob- 
jections to  the  former;  but  when  there  is  not  the  least 
particle  of  evidence  that  so  blessed  a  result  would 
ensue,  we  should  be  guilty  of  the  most  extravagant 
folly  were  we  to  encourage  a  policy  which  has  proven 
its  total  inadequacy  wherever  it  has  been  enforced  in 
the  old  world. 

It  cannot  be  regarded  as  surprising  that  the  Roman 

2C 


434      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Church  should  advocate  a  theory  of  union  grounded  on 
her  own  claims  to  apostolicity  and  catholicity.  We 
designate  it  the  papal  theory ;  and  however  we  may 
dissent  from  it,  we  must  admit  that  it  has  the  charm  of 
simplicity.  Nothing  is  more  logical  and  more  complete. 
If  the  principles  on  which  it  rests  are  accepted  by  the 
conscience,  then  to  reject  the  measure  proposed  by  his 
holiness  for  the  gathering  of  the  divided  flock  in  one 
sheepfold  would  be  unreasonable  and  unjustifiable.  It 
is  altogether  wrong  to  suppose  that  the  popes  have 
been  without  solicitude  for  the  divisions  distracting  the 
Christian  world.  Pius  IX.  was  not  indifferent  to  the 
evil,  and  Leo  XIII.,  among  his  numerous  encyclicals 
has  devoted  one  or  more  to  this  subject.  But  they  all 
propose  one  and  the  same  remedy — submission  to  the 
papacy.  When  the  Ecumenical  Council  was  summoned 
in  1 869-1 870,  the  Eastern  prelates  were  invited,  but 
with  the  proviso  that  they  should  take  no  part  in  the 
deliberations  ''till  they  professed  the  Catholic  faith 
whole  and  entire  "  ;  and  the  Reformed  Churches  were 
permitted  also  to  send  representatives,  who  should  be 
"  referred  to  experienced  men  and  have  their  diffi- 
culties solved."  But  in  both  instances  absolute  sub- 
mission was  the  only  condition  on  which  the  papacy 
would  admit  delegates  from  other  Christian  bodies  to 
membership  in  the  council.  The  "  Dublin  Review," 
as  quoted  by  Oxenham  in  his  preface  to  Bollinger's 
book,  states  exactly  the  attitude  assumed  by  the  Holy 
See  in  its  imperious  demands : 

The  church  apostolic,  undivided  and  universal,  stands  alone 
among  other  religious  communities,  with  everything  to  bestow, 
nothing  to  receive.      She  admits  no  right  to  parley  with  her  ;  her 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  435 

call,  whether  to  individuals  or  communities,  is  a  summons  not  to 
treat  but  to  surrender.  She  sits  as  a  judge  in  her  own  contro- 
versy, and  the  only  plea  she  admits  is  a  Confiteo7',  the  only  prayer 
she  listens  to  a  Miserere. 

Dollinger,  commenting  on  this  spirit  as  revealed  in  the 
Vatican  Council,  does  not  hesitate  to  declare  that  it 
blights  every  hope  of  reunion  even  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  communions.      His  words  are  : 

The  great  stumbling-block  and  real  hindrance  to  any  under- 
standing in  the  eyes  of  all  Easterns  is  the  papacy,  in  the  form 
which  it  has  assumed  according  to  the  ultramontane  theory,  since 
the  time  of  Gregory  VII.,  of  an  absolute  spiritual  and  temporal 
dominion  over  the  whole  Christian  world.  .  .  Through  recent 
occurrences,  every  hope  of  reconciliation  and  future  reunion  has 
been  purposely  cut  up  by  the  roots.  The  present  pope  [Pio 
Nono]  has  within  the  last  few  years  imposed  three  new  articles 
of  faith — the  Immaculate  Conception,  the  Universal  Episcopate, 
and  the  Infallibility.  .  .  In  Rome  the  mind  and  temper  of  the 
Greeks  and  Russians  was  perfectly  well  understood.  It  was  known 
that  on  their  principles  this  attempt  to  make  new  dogmas  could 
only  be  regarded  as  a  crime  and  a  blasphemy.  .  .  To  speak  any 
longer  of  hopes  of  a  future  union  would  border  on  madness.^ 

And  as  the  Curia  has  thus  rendered  affiliation  with 
the  Greek  Church  impossible,  so  it  has  studiously  de- 
clined the  advances  of  the  Anglicans.  It  is  well  known 
that  a  society  exists  within  the  English  Establishment 
devoted  to  the  corporate  reunion  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land with  the  Church  of  Rome.  Much  has  been  done 
by  this  body  in  the  way  of  removing  obstacles  ;  and  the 
only  concession  it  has  asked  from  the  Holy  See  is  a  re- 
cognition of  the  validity  of  Anglican  priestly  orders. 
This    acknowledgment    would    have   gone    far    toward 

*  "  Reunion  of  Churches,"  pp.  54-56. 


436      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

healing  the  breach ;  but  the  venerable  pontiff  received 
all  approaches  on  the  subject  with  quiet  and  not  over- 
polite  disdain.  A  papal  bull  was  published,  and  the 
validity  of  the  orders  in  question  was  unceremoniously 
denied.  The  reply  came  as  an  unexpected  shock  to 
the  ritualistic  party,  but,  like  a  thunder-storm,  it  has 
cleared  the  air.  It  enables  the  entire  world  to  under- 
stand the  precise  meaning  to  be  attached  to  the  solici- 
tude of  the  Curia  for  the  reunion  of  Christendom. 
What  in  reality  it  has  at  heart  is  the  subjugation  of 
East  and  West,  Greek  and  Protestant  communions,  to 
the  authority  of  St.  Peter's  throne.  If  we  are  pre- 
pared for  this,  and  for  what  this  involves,  outward 
divisions  can  cease  immediately.  If  this  submission, 
which  carries  with  it  the  loss  of  intellectual  freedom  in 
religious  matters,  and  which  entails  on  us  unquestion- 
ing obedience  to  a  power  that  is  still  essentially  medie- 
val, is  worth  more  than  the  enormous  sacrifices  it  de- 
mands, then  let  us  hasten  to  make  it  with  all  humility. 
But  let  us  not  deceive  ourselves.  We  cannot  retain 
the  distinctive  glories  of  Protestantism  and  affiliate 
with  the  Roman  Church.  One  or  the  other  w^e  can 
have,  but  not  both.  True  in  every  point  the  solemn 
and  earnest  warning  of  Canon  Melville : 

Make  peace,  if  you  will,  with  papacy  ;  receive  it  into  your 
senate  ;  shrine  it  in  your  churches  ;  shrine  it  in  your  hearts.  But 
be  ye  certain,  as  certain  as  that  there  is  a  heaven  above  you  and 
a  God  over  you,  that  the  popery  thus  honored  and  embraced  is 
the  very  popery  that  was  loathed  and  degraded  by  the  holiest  of 
your  fathers  ;  the  same  in  haughtiness,  the  same  in  intolerance, 
which  lorded  it  over  kings,  assumed  the  prerogative  of  Deity, 
crushed  human  liberty,  and  slew  the  saints  of  God.  ^ 

*  "Secret  History  of  Oxford  Movement,"  Chapter  X. 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  43/ 

The  possibility  of  re-union  on  the  terms  of  the  Holy 
See  can  hardly  be  seriously  entertained  by  the  most 
visionary  enthusiast.  Russia,  with  her  increasing  popu- 
lation and  growing  political  importance,  will  never  con- 
sent in  this  manner  to  discredit  her  church  and  her 
patriarchates  ;  and  it  surpasses  belief  to  suppose  that 
Protestants  would,  after  four  centuries  of  glorious  history, 
be  willing  to  risk  the  fruits  of  their  struggle  in  the 
keeping  of  their  unwavering  antagonist,  particularly 
when  they  are  confronted  by  the  Vatican  Decrees,  and 
the  famous  encyclical  of  Pio  Nono  condemning  freedom 
of  thought  and  the  liberty  of  the  press.  But  more  than 
this,  the  honest  scholarship  of  the  world  can  never  con- 
sent to  subscribe  to  recent  papal  assumptions  as  either 
scriptural  or  historical.  It  is  too  much  to  expect  that 
informed  and  conscientious  men  will  deliberately  do 
violence  to  the  highest  and  most  unanswerable  evidence. 
The  doctrine  of  infallibility  as  now  maintained  at  Rome 
is  a  new  doctrine,  and  when  it  was  suggested  as  a  mat- 
ter of  opinion  in  earlier  times,  it  never  succeeded  in 
securing  the  allegiance  of  the  church.  A  little  over  a 
hundred  years  ago,  as  though  in  anticipation  of  what 
was  to  be  the  crowning  innovation  of  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil, an  anonymous  writer  issued  a  book  in  England,  an 
''  EU-enicon,''  similar  to  the  volume  published  later  by 
Dr.  Pusey,  entitled  "  Essay  toward  a  Proposal  for 
Catholic  Communion,"  ^  in  which  is  given  in  condensed 
form  the  argument  against  the  extravagant  pretensions 
of  the  supreme  pontiff.  This  unknown  author  in  the 
following  brief  but  powerful  sentences  sums  up  the 
evidence  : 

1  Printed  in  London,  1781. 


438      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Having  found,  upon  strict  examination,  that  the  church  in 
communion  with  the  See  of  Rome  requires  no  assent  to  such  a 
papal  infaUibiHty  ;  That  it  is  not  so  much  as  mentioned  in  the 
definition  of  the  Council  of  Florence,  in  which  the  controversy  of 
the  papal  authority  and  prerogative  was  professedly  and  fully  dis- 
cussed ;  That  it  is  not  in  the  formula  of  faith,  set  forth  by  Pope 
Pius  IV.  collected  out  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  of  which  all 
promoted  to  church  dignities  are  obliged  to  make  a  solemn  pro- 
fession ;  That  it  is  not  proposed  to  such  as  are  admitted  members 
into  that  communion  ;  That  it  has  no  place  either  in  their  cate- 
chism ad  Faroe hos,  nor  in  other  catechisms,  which  are  for  the 
general  instruction  of  the  people;  having  found  likewise  that  Bel- 
larmin  (/.  dc  Rom.  Pont.  c.  II.)  owns  five  eminent  doctors  posi- 
tively denying  the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  without  being  censured 
by  their  church  for  such  their  tenets  ;  That  the  famous  Launoius 
reckons  up  twelve  universities,  Bononia,  Pavia,  Sienna  in  Italy, 
Louvain  in  Belgia,  Cologne  in  Germany,  Vienna  in  Austria,  Cra- 
cow in  Poland,  Anjou,  Orleans,  Toulouse,  and  Paris  in  France  ; 
and,  besides  these  numerous  bodies,  seven  and  fifty  single  writers, 
among  which  are  many  eminent  bishops,  archbishops,  and  car- 
dinals, viz,  seventeen  of  the  Prussian  school,  three  of  the  Span- 
ish, one  of  Oxford,  five  Germans,  and  no  less  than  one-and-thirty 
in  Italy  alone,  all  professedly  writing  against  this  infallibility  of 
the  pope,  without  any  censure  passed  against  them  from  that 
church  ;  having  found,  I  say,  this,  it  seems  evident  from  hence, 
that  this  papal  infallibility  is  no  term  of  communion  with  that 
church  ;  that  it  is  no  more  than  a  matter  of  opinion,  and  not  of 
foith. 

This  array  of  facts  has  never  been  discredited  ;  and  yet 
with  siibHme  assurance  we  are  called  on  to  put  an  end 
to  schism  by  professing  to  believe  as  true  what  we 
know,  and  what  they  who  propose  the  dishonorable 
terms  know,  to  be  an  absolute  and  elaborate  fiction. 
Were  there  so  little  principle  in  the  Christian  commu- 
nity as  the  acceptance  of  this  falsehood  would  reveal, 
the  union  secured  would  be  a  disgrace,  and  in  the  na- 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  439 

ture  of  things  would  debauch  the  moral  sense  of  all 
parties  to  it,  and  could  only  end  in  fresh  alienations  and 
ultimate  disintegration.  In  it,  therefore,  there  is  no 
hope,  but  only  shame  and  all  the  dissonances  and  deg- 
radations that  spring  from  connivance  with  deception. 

Neither  can  we  expect  success  from  another  move- 
ment which  has  developed  of  late,  by  which  it  is  hoped 
to  suppress  denominationalism  through  the  progressive 
Catholicizing  of  Protestant  churches.  This  plan  does 
not  necessarily  involve  papal  supremacy,  though  not 
inconsistent  with  it,  but  contemplates  union  through 
the  adoption  of  the  ancient  creeds — the  Apostles',  the 
Nicene,  and  the  Athanasian — the  observance  of  a  com- 
mon ritual,  and  the  recognition  of  what  is  called  the 
historic  episcopate.  On  this  subject  Professor  Adolf 
Harnack  has  written  quite  freely  of  late.      He  says  : 

The  chief  enemy  to-day  is  not  political  Catholicism  of  "  Ultra- 
montanism,"  although  that  is  a  tendency  which  never  ceases  to 
be  dangerous.  It  is  a  Catholicism  as  a  religion  and  an  ecclesias- 
tical spirit  which  threatens  us,  it  is  clericalism  and  ritualism,  the 
alluring  union  of  exalted  piety  and  solemn  secularity,  and  the 
substitution  for  religion  of  obedience.  This  is  the  spirit  that  is 
knocking  at  the  doors  of  the  Protestant  churches  in  Germany — I 
fear  also  in  England — and  is  demanding  admittance.  It  has 
mighty  allies.  All  those  who  in  their  hearts  are  indifferent  to  re- 
ligion are  its  secret  friends.  In  their  view,  if  religion  and  church 
are  to  continue  to  exist  at  all,  it  is  the  Catholic  form  of  them  which 
is  still  the  most  tolerable  and  the  most  rational.^ 

This  scheme  relies  in  no  small  measure  on  the  fas- 
cination which  the  word  catholic  possesses  for  many 
devout  and  mystical  minds — a  word  that  is  not  scrip- 

1  * '  Thoughts  on  Protestantism, ' '  Preface. 


440      CHRISTIANITY     IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tural,  that  does  not  occur  either  in  the  LXX. — the 
Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament — or  in  the  New, 
and  only  came  into  gradual  use  in  the  second  cen- 
tury. While  since  its  employment  many  precious  mem- 
ories have  connected  themselves  with  it,  there  are 
others  more  numerous,  far  from  gracious  or  beautiful, 
that  should  incline  us  to  regard  it  with  only  moderate 
enthusiasm.  What  is  always  more  important  than  the 
name  is  the  thing  that  it  represents.  The  title  does 
not  always  assure  possession  of  the  substance.  Thus, 
mark  the  difference  between  Newman's  estimate  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  and  Tennyson's,  both  claiming  to  be 
Catholics.      Newman  writes  : 

I  could  attend  masses  forever  and  not  be  tired.  .  .  It  is  not  the 
invocation,  but,  if  I  dare  use  the  word,  the  evocation  of  the  Eter- 
nal. He  becomes  present  on  the  altar  in  flesh  and  blood,  before 
whom  angels  bow  and  tremble. 

But  the  son  of  the  poet  gives  this  impressive  account 
of  what  occurred  three  months  before  his  father's  death  : 

Dr.  Merriman  administered  the  sacrament  to  all  in  my  father's 
study.  The  service  was  very  solemn.  Before  he  took  of  the 
communion  he  quoted  his  own  words  put  into  Cranmer's  mouth  : 

It  is  but  a  communion,  not  a  mass  ; 
No  sacrifice,  but  a  life-giving  feast ; 

impressing  upon  the  rector  that  he  could  not  partake  of  it  at  all 
unless  it  were  administered  in  that  sense. 

If  these  two  irreconcilable  conceptions  could  struggle 
together,  like  Jacob  and  Esau,  in  the  womb  of  one 
church,  is  it  not  the  most  fantastic  of  dreams  to  imagine 
that  they  would  consent  to  abide  in  harmony  beneath 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  44I 

the  same  ecclesiastical  tent  ?  No  ;  sooner  or  later,  the 
history  of  the  two  brothers  would  be  repeated.  Schism 
would  again  occur.  There  are  insuperable  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  the  Catholicizing  programme.  These 
may  easily  be  discerned  by  those  readers  who  recall 
what  has  been  said  in  this  volume  on  the  Oxford  move- 
ment. But  superadded  to  these  is  one  that  is  never 
taken  into  account  by  the  ritualistic  party,  namely,  the 
strength  of  spiritual  independency  which  has  grown  and 
struck  its  roots  down  deep  in  humanity  since  the  days 
of  the  Reformation.  Before  the  endeavors  described 
by  Harnack  can  hope  to  succeed,  this  principle,  which 
now  runs  through  the  mental  habits  and  institutions  of 
our  age,  must  lose  its  power.  It  cannot  be  ignored  by 
any  scheme  that  seeks  to  harmonize  the  differences  of 
men.  If  passed  by  and  dealt  with  as  though  it  were  a 
fiction,  it  would  only  in  the  end  occasion  the  most  wide- 
spread misunderstanding  and  confusion.  There  would 
be  an  ultimate  reaction,  and  the  artificial  and  superficial 
union  would  be  torn  to  pieces. 

Of  the  significance  of  this  independency  Dollinger, 
with  his  usual  penetration,  has  written  sagaciously,  and 
though  he  is  not  altogether  accurate  in  tracing  its  rise 
to  Cromwell,  yet,  being  a  Catholic,  his  reflections  are  of 
mo,re  than  ordinary  value.  He  thus  expresses  himself 
in  a  singular  lecture  on  the   "  Founders  of  Religion  "  : 

I  am  much  tempted  to  reckon  among  the  founders  of  religion — 
although  certainly  not  in  the  ordinary  sense — another  of  Eng- 
land's rulers,  the  Protector  Cromwell,  a  man  who  surpassed  many 
kings  in  power  as  well  as  in  political  insight  and  serious  religious 
conviction.  He  was  not  the  founder  of  any  particular  church  or 
denomination,  but  became  a  member  of  a  sect  with  which  he  felt 


442      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

himself  particularly  in  sympathy — that  of  the  Independents.  Yet 
he  was  the  first  among  the  mighty  men  of  the  world  to  set  up  one 
special  religious  principle,  and  to  enforce  it  as  far  as  in  him  lay  ; 
a  principle  which,  in  opposition  to  the  great  historical  churches 
and  to  Islam,  contained  the  germs  of  a  distinct  religion — the 
principle  of  liberty  of  conscience,  and  the  repudiation  of  religious 
coercion.  It  must  be  clearly  understood  how  great  the  gulf  is 
which  divides  the  holders  of  this  principle  from  those  who  reject 
it,  both  in  faith  and  morals.  He  who  is  convinced  that  right  and 
duty  require  him  to  coerce  other  people  into  a  life  of  falsehood, 
hypocrisy,  and  habitual  dissimulation, — the  inevitable  consequence 
of  a  system  of  religious  intolerance, — belongs  to  an  essentially  dif- 
ferent religion  from  one  who  recognizes  in  the  inviolability  of  con- 
science a  human  right  guaranteed  by  religion  itself,  and  has  dif- 
ferent notions  of  God,  of  man's  relation  to  God,  and  of  man's 
obligations  to  his  fellows.  It  was  in  those  days  no  insignificant 
thing  that  the  ruler  of  a  powerful  kingdom  should  proclaim  the 
new  doctrine,  which,  nevertheless,  has  required  the  growth  of  a 
century  and  a  half  in  public  opinion  to  become  strong  enough  to 
command  even  the  acquiescence  of  its  still  numerous  opponents. 
The  Evangelical  Alliance,  which  now  embraces  two  continents, 
and  has  happily  realized  a  principle  of  agreement  between  churches 
formerly  unknown  or  held  to  be  impossible,  may  well  regard  Crom- 
well as  its  prophet  and  preparatory  founder.  Yet  it  is  only  of 
this  one  doctrine  that  Cromwell  can  be  called  the  prophet,  for  he 
adhered  upon  all  other  points  to  the  tenets  of  the  Independents  ; 
yet  the  doctrine  of  liberty  of  conscience  has  struck  deeper  into  the 
course  of  events,  and  has  had  a  larger  share  in  the  development 
of  modern  religious  feeling,  than  a  dozen  dogmas  sprung  from 
theological  schools,  that  affect  merely  the  intellect  and  not  the 
soul — that  is,  the  will — of  the  believer.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  of  America  has  been  built  up  upon  Cromwell's  doc- 
trine ;  and  there  is  every  prospect  that,  as  one  of  the  great  powers 
of  the  world,  it  will  leave  its  mark  upon  the  future  of  mankind. 

Who  is  there  who  does  not  perceive  in  this  utterance, 
not  only  the  reef  on  which  all   Catholicizing  schemes 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  443 

must  be  wrecked,  but  the  one  great  principle  which 
must  be  honored  by  every  school  or  party  that  attempts 
the  reunion  of  Christendom  ? 

To  any  one  at  all  familiar  with  the  teachings  of  the 
New  Testament  it  will  be  evident  that  none  of  these 
proposed  elaborate  and  highly  articulated  consolidations 
corresponds  in  the  least  degree  with  its  ideal  of  Chris- 
tian union.  In  no  instance  do  we  derive  from  them  a 
suggestion  of  the  primitive  fellowship  that  preserved 
the  early  disciples,  notwithstanding  occasional  differ- 
ences, in  an  apparent  oneness.  Of  the  things  on  which 
stress  is  now  laid  as  conducive  to  unification,  such  as 
hierarchies,  creeds,  and  a  common  ritual,  not  a  trace  is 
to  be  found.  The  greatest  freedom  prevailed  through- 
out the  apostolic  age  in  the  order  and  practices  of  the 
churches.  They  had  no  authorized  and  accepted  theol- 
ogy. "  At  the  beginning  there  was  only  prophecy  and 
spiritual  teaching.  The  man  who,  in  the  name  of  re- 
ligion, delivered  himself  of  a  truth  which  he  had  per- 
ceived, or  communicated  a  piece  of  religious  admoni- 
tion, did  so  at  the  instigation  of  the  Spirit."  They  had 
no  complicated  rubric  ;  but  were  simply  encouraged 
when  they  met  to  sing  psalms,  to  offer  prayer,  to  re- 
member the  poor  saints,  and  to  keep  the  feast  of  love. 
Every  one  disavowed  the  right  to  exercise  lordship  over 
the  faith  of  others.  They  reasoned  one  with  another, 
and  did  not  coerce.  Apostles  did  not  adopt  the  high, 
imperious  tone  of  infallibility,  but  spoke  or  wrote  with 
the  most  gentle  moderation  and  consideration.  More- 
over, for  the  sake  of  avoiding  schism,  they  forbore  to 
enjoin  on  the  Gentile  converts  a  rite  which  they  them- 
selves had  been  taught  to  prize,  but  sent  to  Antioch  for 


444      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

answer  to  questions  that  had  been  brought  to  the 
church  at  Jerusalem,  this  decision:  ''  It  seemed  good  to 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  to  us  to  lay  upon  you  no  greater 
thing  than  these  necessary  things  " — at  once  suggest- 
ing that  only  essentials  were  then  regarded  as  conditions 
of  union. 

In  those  days,  also,  it  was  not  considered  indispensa- 
ble for  one  apostle  to  derive  his  authority  from  another. 
Paul  was  called  to  the  office  by  Christ,  and  was  anointed 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  not  by  Peter,  and  never  looked 
on  Peter  as  superior  to  himself,  but  even  ''  resisted  him 
to  the  face  because  he  stood  condemned."  But  these 
early  religious  communities,  while  holding  intercourse 
with  one  another  and  co-operating  with  each  other, 
were  not  free  from  discordant  elements  and  divisive 
counsels.  If  we  are  to  believe  the  critics,  there  was  a 
Jewish  party  among  the  disciples,  and  traces  of  a  Peter- 
ine  church  and  then  of  a  Pauline  church.  Misunder- 
standing arose,  and  partisan  disputes  were  not  unknown  ; 
but  no  one  church,  say  at  Jerusalem  or  Rome,  set  itself 
up  as  being  the  custodian  of  the  truth  and  as  being 
absolutely  right,  while  all  the  rest  were  schismatical. 
The  followers  of  our  Lord  argued  together,  admonished 
and  reproved,  but  they  never  for  a  moment  imagined 
that  they  were  members  of  different  denominations. 
They  always  tried  to  be  fraternal  in  their  spirit  and 
federative  in  their  work.  And  when  we  recall  the 
character  of  their  disputations,  and  then  think  of  the 
prayer  our  Lord  breathed  for  unity,  we  cannot  suppose 
that  he  had  in  view  the  acceptance  of  a  common  ritual 
and  obedience  to  a  common  ecclesiastical  chief,  but 
rather,  and  only,  the  cultivation  of  brotherhood,  mutual 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  445 

forbearance,  gracious  tolerance,  broad-minded  and  com- 
prehensive charity,  without  which  co-operative  activity 
is  next  to  impossible,  and  for  which  there  was  great 
need  in  the  apostolic  era,  as  there  has  been  ever  since/ 
In  these  few  sentences  I  have  given  a  sketch  of 
primitive  Christian  union,  which  has  the  approval  of  the 
most  candid  and  learned  among  historians,  and  which 
should  serve  as  a  model  toward  whose  realization  in  the 
twentieth  century  we  should  devote  our  energies.  Its 
fulfillment  would  give  to  the  world  what  was  called  in 
medieval  times  the  "  Johannean  Church,"  And  such 
a  church  in  my  opinion  would  very  speedily  conquer 
the  world.  That  the  Catholic  conception  of  union  is 
not  indispensable  to  the  triumphs  of  the  Cross,  has 
been  proven  by  the  wonders  wrought  when  it  has  not 
been  adopted.  Impressed  by  what  has  been  done,  one 
who  does  not  always  manifest  sympathy  with  Noncon- 
formity writes  : 

Certainly  the  triumphs  of  modern  Christianity  in  the  ethical 
province  more  than  compensate  for  any  loss  of  corporate  cohesion. 
Working  through  ecclesiastical  organizations  of  most  varied  char- 
acter, its  spirit  has  here  achieved  victories  which  the  ages  of  or- 
ganic unity  never  attempted.  The  abolition  of  slavery — the 
countless  institutions  for  raising  the  moral  and  social  condition  of 
the  working  classes — the  keen  realization  of  the  sanctity  of  human 
life — the  universal  deprecation  of  needless  cruelties  in  war  and  in 
police — these  are  but  a  few  instances  of  the  advance  of  Christian 
civilization.  2 

These  successes  demonstrate  that  we  have  no  need  for 
the   Catholicizing  of   Christendom   for   the   purpose  of 


^  See  Hatch  on  "Organization  of  Early  Churches  "  ;  also  Ramsay  on 

The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire." 

•^  Jennings,  "  Manual  Church  History,"  p.  232 


44^      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

bringing  in  the  everlasting  reign  of  peace  and  righteous- 
ness. 

If  so  much  could  be  accomplished  by  communities 
separated  from  each  other,  at  times  struggling  for 
supremacy,  often  evincing  a  sectarian  spirit,  how  much 
more  would  be  achieved  and  speedily,  if  this  spirit  were 
entirely  eliminated,  if  denominational  names  were  laid 
aside,  if  the  various  communions  always  consulted  to- 
gether and  worked  together,  and  if  they  were  willing,  to 
pull  down  and  lay  aside  every  barrier  that  impeded  the 
fullest  co-operation  ?  Judging  from  what  has  been  done 
without  it,  this  co-ordination  would  speedily  complete 
the  triumph  of  the  Cross.  But  it  may  be  urged  that  it 
would  still  be  better,  and  success  more  immediate,  if 
every  separate  organization  were  merged  in  one  vast 
organic  whole,  so  that  Christendom  could  move  forward 
to  the  great  battle  of  the  future  in  close  columns.  And 
yet  experience  has  recently  been  teaching  the  armies  of 
earth  "  that  an  attack  in  open  order  is,  under  certain 
circumstances,  particularly  effective."  This  was  demon- 
strated repeatedly  in  the  South  African  war.  And  these 
tactics  may  be  just  as  successful  in  religion,  provided 
always,  that  the  soldiers  in  open  order  do  not  fire  on 
each  other,  or  spend  their  time  in  criticising  each  other's 
accoutrements  and  mode  of  advance.  Indeed,  they  have 
proven  wonderfully  effective,  even  when  the  men  have 
spent  ammunition  against  one  another,  and  have  ques- 
tioned each  other's  right  to  be  in  the  fight  at  all.  But 
were  they  in  perfect  agreement,  carefully  sustaining 
each  other,  never  getting  in  each  other's  way,  and  act- 
ing together  according  to  a  concerted  plan,  in  my  judg- 
ment the  result  would  be  decisive  and  overwhelming. 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  447 

The  Protestants  alone  pursuing  this  mode  of  warfare 
would  very  soon  conquer  the  world  for  Christ ;  and 
while  the  work  would  be  greatly  facilitated  by  the  co- 
operation of  the  Greek  and  Roman  hierarchies,  even 
without  their  close  columns  the  issue  would  not  long  be 
doubtful. 

To  bring  about  this  efficient  and  harmonious  fusion 
of  forces,  and  thus  to  restore  primitive  Christian  union, 
demands  that  the  fraternal  spirit  be  cultivated  and  the 
various  Christian  churches  be  federated.  And  it  is  a 
source  of  gratification  and  gratitude,  that  these  two 
processes  have  been  at  work  during  the  last  quarter  of 
the  nineteenth  century  and  have  made  considerable 
headway.  A  far  better  feeling  exists  between  the  once 
estranged  denominations — a  feeling  of  amity  and  mutual 
appreciation — than  was  common  a  few  years  ago.  The 
intense  individualism  of  such  writers  as  Vinet  and  Chan- 
ning  has  had  its  day,  and  the  diseased  introspection  and 
self-absorption  revealed  in  Amiel  and  Senancours  are 
rapidly  disappearing  in  the  limbo  of  lost  causes.  It 
may  be  said  of  every  man  who  is  a  religious  egoist  or 
recluse,  who  is  a  hermit  by  nature,  though  mingling 
with  the  world,  what  Sainte-Beuve  said  of  Obermann  : 
"  He  is  the  type  of  the  dumb  and  abortive  genius,  full 
of  the  spring  of  sensibility  wasted  upon  desert  sands,  of 
the  hail-smitten  harvest  which  never  matures  its  gold." 
Protestants  are  beginning  to  appreciate  the  significance 
of  this  criticism.  Individualism  is  on  the  decline  among 
them,  and  they  find  themselves  sympathizing  with  Jovin- 
ian,  who,  though  counted  a  heretic  by  Augustine  and 
Jerome,  gave  utterance  to  these  very  orthodox  senti- 
ments : 


44^      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

There  is  but  one  divine  element  of  life,  which  all  believers 
share  in  common  ;  but  one  fellowship  with  Christ,  which  pro- 
ceeds from  faith  in  him  ;  but  one  new  birth.  All  who  possess 
this  in  common  with  each  other  have  the  same  calling,  the  same 
dignity,  the  same  heavenly  blessings  ;  the  diversity  of  outward 
circumstances  creating  no  difference  in  this  respect. 

There  being  this  spiritual  solidarity,  comparable  to  the 
oneness  of  the  ocean,  whose  wind-blown  waves  do  not 
disturb  the  serene  harmony  of  the  fathomless  depths, 
bitterness,  hatred,  partisanship,  and  every  unbrotherly 
feeling  should  be  excluded.  In  proportion  as  this  is 
apprehended — and  it  is  understood  better  and  felt  more 
to-day  than  formerly — a  sense  of  kinship  with  all  Chris- 
tians, whatever  their  denominational  badge,  becomes 
more  clearly  defined  and  real.  The  old  censorious 
spirit  gives  way,  and  the  disposition  to  impute  unworthy 
motives  to  every  one  who  differs  from  another  is  swal- 
lowed up  in  the  generous  charity  that  is  not  puffed  up 
and  thinketh  no  evil. 

In  the  early  annals  of  American  Christianity  there  is 
an  incident  which  called  forth  a  letter  which  might  have 
been  a  prophecy  of  what  has  fallen  out  in  the  last  days 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Governor  Endicott,  who 
with  his  much-suffering  little  colony  had  settled  at 
Salem,  was  compelled  by  the  prevalence  of  sickness  to 
request  from  Governor  Bradford,  of  Plymouth,  the  serv- 
ices of  a  physician.  Dr.  Samuel  Fuller.  These  two 
colonies,  and  their  equally  worthy  governors,  were  not 
in  accord  on  religious  subjects,  and  the  extent  of  the 
division  had  been  magnified  by  evil-disposed  persons. 
But  whatever  of  misunderstanding  and  alienation  ex- 
isted, the  Separatist  deacon,  *'  the  beloved  physician," 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  449 

by  his  unselfish  labors  largely  overcame  and  effaced. 
This  is  made  evident  from  a  passage  taken  from  the 
letter  of  Governor  Endicott  to  Governor  Bradford  in 
acknowledgment  of  his  courteous  assistance.  It  bears 
date  May  ii,  1629,  and  the  extract  is  as  follows  : 

It  is  a  thing  not  usual  that  servants  to  one  Master  and  of  the 
same  household  should  be  strangers.  I  assure  you  I  desire  it 
not  ;  nay,  to  speak  more  plainly,  I  cannot  be  so  to  you.  God' s 
people  are  marked  with  one  and  the  same  seal,  and  have,  for  the 
main,  one  and  the  same  heart,  guided  by  one  and  the  same  spirit 
of  truth,  and  where  this  is  there  can  be  no  discord — nay,  here 
must  needs  be  sweet  harmony.  The  same  request  with  you  I 
make  unto  the  Lord,  that  we  may  as  Christian  brethren  be  united 
by  a  heavenly  and  unfeigned  love,  bending  all  our  hearts  and 
forces  in  furthering  a  work  beyond  our  strength,  with  reverence 
and  fear  fastening  our  eyes  always  on  Him  that  only  is  able  to 
direct  and  prosper  all  our  days. 

We  cannot  but  rejoice  in  this  evidence  of  fraternal  re- 
gard in  those  relatively  dark  ages,  all  the  more  brilliant 
because  of  its  exceptional  character ;  and  we  much  more 
rejoice  that  now,  after  much  internecine  warfare,  this 
passage  from  the  governor's  letter  may  be  taken  as 
embodying  the  new  creed  of  the  Protestant  world. 

Nearly  all,  if  not  all,  profess  it ;  and  while  it  may  not 
yet  be  continuously  and  consistently  practised  by  all, 
there  is  a  deepening  sense  of  its  authority  manifested 
everywhere,  and  endeavors,  not  unworthy  of  the  object, 
to  exemplify  it  in  interdenominational  relations.  In 
England  there  is  an  improvement  in  the  attitude  of 
many  low  and  broad  Church  Anglicans  toward  Noncon- 
formists. Several  irritating  discriminations,  and  some 
of  them  on  the  face  as  unreasonable  as  they  are  exas- 

2D 


450      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

pcrating,  such  as  the  fiction  of  consecrated  ground  in 
which  the  body  of  a  Dissenter  may  not  be  interred,  and 
which  called  forth  the  justly  indignant  protest  of  Dr. 
Joseph  Parker,  unfortunately  have  survived  to  the  great 
injury  of  amicable  feelings.  Yet,  notwithstanding  these 
drawbacks,  substantial  gain  has  been  made,  and  mutual 
respect  and  reciprocal  sentiments  of  appreciation,  have 
secured  perceptible  advance.  Occasionally,  even,  it  is 
now  observable  that  Romanists  and  Protestants  think 
more  highly  of  each  other  than  formerly,  and  are  more 
willing  to  recognize  what  is  good  in  their  respective 
communions.  They  are  sometimes  found  working  to- 
gether side  by  side  for  the  public  welfare,  and  have  been 
known  to  contribute  money  for  the  furtherance  of  each 
other's  enterprises,  as  illustrated  by  Mr.  Dwight  L. 
Moody  assisting  the  Catholics  to  erect  a  church  at 
Northfield.  Thus  in  many  ways  the  spirit  of  frater- 
nity has  grown,  grown  all  over  the  world  and  in  the 
majority  of  churches.  The  gracious  tide  is  still  rising, 
though  it  is  some  distance  yet  from  being  at  the  full. 
But  as  it  increases,  how  many  ugly  sectarian  marshes 
are  hidden  from  the  sight,  how  many  angular,  jagged 
reefs  of  bigotry  are  submerged  from  view,  and  with 
how  much  more  ease  and  safety  can  the  diverse  de- 
» nominations  sail  side  by  side  and  exchange  greetings 
of  love  and  peace. 

As  it  is  our  privilege  and  obligation  to  do  what  we 
can  for  the  increase  of  fraternity,  we  should  be  equally 
concerned  to  give  it  practical  efficiency  through  the 
federative  activity  of  the  churches.  P^ederation  in 
England,  while  yet  in  the  experimental  stage,  has  thus 
far    worked    smoothly,   and    given    proof    of    its    value 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  45  1 

as  a  remedy  for  sectarianism.  The  Nonconformist 
churches  there  have  entered  into  a  kind  of  *' solemn 
league  and  covenant,"  and  are  combining  for  the  evan 
gelization  of  Great  Britain.  In  the  United  States  some 
steps  have  already  been  taken,  notably  in  New  York, 
for  the  application  of  this  new  departure  to  the  needs 
of  divided  Christendom.  If  it  is  everywhere  energeti- 
cally pushed,  and  if  the  great  denominations  will  only 
heartily  adopt  its  measures,  the  time  cannot  be  far 
distant  when  primitive  Christian  union  shall  be  re- 
stored to  bless  the  world.  For,  be  it  remembered, 
when  Pliny  wrote  to  Trajan  in  the  early  part  of  the 
second  century,  when  there  was  no  visible  head  to  the 
church,  as  the  last  of  the  apostles  had  ended  his  min- 
istry, and  when  there  was  no  recognized  seat  of  au- 
thority, for  Jerusalem  was  desolate  and  Rome  had  not 
been  accorded  the  primacy  ;  when  the  '*  Teaching  of 
the  Twelve"  had  been  penned,  and  before  Ignatius  had 
commenced  his  progress,  more  than  royal  in  its  dignity, 
from  Antioch  to  martyrdom  at  Rome  ;  the  pro-consul 
considered  the  Christian  people  throughout  the  empire 
as  one,  and  he  in  common  with  others  was  deeply  im- 
pressed by  the  victorious  power  of  this  manifest  unity. 
Federation,  animated  by  the  spirit  of  fraternity,  comes 
nearer  to  this  ancient  pattern  of  union  than  any  of  the 
clamorous  demands  for  a  single  corporate  body,  with 
authority  concentrated  in  a  Curia,  and  set  on  realizing 
a  dreary,  monotonous  uniformity. 

What  brotherhood  begins  I  am  sure  united  labor 
must  continue  and  perfect.  Various  methods  have 
been  tried  and  have  been  found  wanting,  and  only 
this    last   one    seems    to   remain.      Doctrinal    subscrip- 


452      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tion  has  been  proposed,  but  has  not  been  found  prac- 
tical.     Herder  writes  : 

Dogmas  separate  and  embitter,  but  religion  unites.  Words  and 
syllables  are  deified  ;  the  intoxication  lasts  awhile,  then  it  sub- 
sides, and  nothing  remains  but  the  sharp  scaffolding.  But  re- 
ligion is  a  living  fountain;  you  may  dam  it  up  and  choke  it,  but 
it  will  break  forth  once  more  from  its  depths,  again  purifying 
strengthening,  and  vitalizing  itself. 

And  as  creeds  fail,  so  rubrics  have  not  succeeded,  al- 
though they  may  have  been  rendered  conspicuous  by 
red  letters.  Humanity  resists  intellectual  uniformity, 
and  uniformity  in  discipline  and  forms  of  worship. 
Work,  however,  seems  to  appeal  to  all  alike,  and  when 
two  or  more  are  engaged  in  doing  the  same  thing,  it 
becomes  much  easier  for  them  finally  to  believe  the 
same  thing.  And  herein  lies  the  special  value  of 
Christian  Endeavor  movements,  and  kindred  alliances, 
such  as  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  and 
the  Women's  Christian  Association  likewise.  These 
bodies  undertake  to  do  something.  They  are  organized 
for  special  activities.  Denominational  issues  they  ig- 
nore. They  discuss  neither  baptism  nor  apostolic  suc- 
cession, neither  congregational  polity  nor  prelacy.  All 
irritating  and  divisive  themes  are  put  aside,  and  they 
engage  in  some  gracious  ministry  on  behalf  of  others. 
And  as  they  see  the  wilderness  retreating  before  their 
joint  endeavors,  they  find  it  not  so  hard  as  they  imagined 
to  think  the  same  thought  and  breathe  the  same  prayer. 
Work  is  the  great  unifier.  And  could  we  only  persuade 
Catholic  and  Protestant,  Unitarian  and  Trinitarian,  to 
join  hands  and  labor  side  by  side  with  each  other,  and 
not  against  each  other,  there  would  not  only  be  better 


THE    DISRUPTION    AND    REUNION  453 

feeling  everywhere,  but  there  would  be  a  gradual  har- 
monizing of  beliefs.  For,  after  all,  work  is  the  true 
test  of  a  creed.  As  it  is  more  or  less  the  expression  of 
the  heart's  conviction,  when  several  are  represented  in 
a  common  endeavor,  it  is  hard  to  resist  the  conclusion, 
that  the  one  which  is  the  most  completely  and  continu- 
ously successful  must  have  back  of  it  the  authority  of 
truth.  Let  all  Christians,  then,  federate  their  churches, 
and  let  them  press  forward  to  conquer  the  world  for 
Christ,  and  by  and  by,  after  the  smoke  of  successful 
battle  shall  clear  away,  they  probably  will  perceive  that 
the  creeds  which  now  seem  irreconcilably  opposed,  have 
in  them  much  in  common,  and  not  enough  of  difference 
to  warrant  the  perpetuation  of  sectarian  names. 

The  venerable  and  honored  George  Jacob  Holyoake 
has  recently  been  blessed  with  a  most  entrancing  vision  ; 
and  as  far  as  it  anticipates  the  future  of  Christianity 
others  are  entitled  to  share  its  sweet  anticipations  of 
universal  concord.      He  writes  : 

Once,  like  Bunyan,  I  dreamed  a  dream.  Everybody  who  does 
it  mentions  Bunyan  as  a  sort  of  apology  for  doing  it.  In  my 
dream,  magnates  of  religion  of  all  denominations  were  assembled 
on  a  great  platform,  and  a  goodly  number  of  leaders  of  a  different 
way  of  thinking.  The  utmost  geniality  and  concord  reigned 
between  them.  Not  concord  of  faith  but  of  friendliness — hereto- 
fore non-existent  through  differences  of  conviction.  Personal 
estrangement  no  longer  existed.  Each  regarded  the  other  as  a 
conscientious  seeker  after  truth.  No  one  abandoned  what  Edward 
Miall  used  to  describe  as  his  "  Dissidence  of  Dissent."  Each 
pursued  his  own  ideal — advocated  it  and  defended  it,  if  necessary. 
There  was  no  concealment,  no  concession,  no  compromise,  no 
apology  for  honest  difference  of  opinion.  Nor  was  there  any  in- 
dignation or  distrust  of  others,  on  account  of  dissentient  convic- 
tions.   As  co-operation,  with  all  its  distinctions,  stands  upon  its  own 


454      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

merits  and  takes  its  own  independent  place  in  the  industry  and 
commerce  of  the  world — religion  and  all  its  varieties,  had  agreed 
to  stand  upon  its  own  particular  form  of  truths,  trusting  to  the 
validity  of  its  arguments  for  its  extension.  When  I  left  the  as- 
sembly the  outer  world  seemed  brighter  than  I  had  known  it. 
There  was  the  glow  of  a  new  light  in  the  streets.  When  I  awoke 
the  pleasant  sense  remained  and  I  thought  how  enchanted  the 
New  Year  would  seem,  should  such  a  light  be  diffused  over  it. 

The  dreamer  may  retain  his  happy  sensations,  for  not 
only  the  new  year,  but  the  new  century,  begins  with 
proofs  that  this  spirit  is  growing.  Babu  Keshub  Chun- 
der  Sen,  a  Hindu  preacher  of  theism,  was  welcomed  to 
London  by  a  distinguished  gathering,  where  a  Uni- 
tarian minister,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  an  eminent  dignitary 
of  the  Establishment,  and  the  Foreign  Secretary  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  united  to  do  him  honor. 
Christians  have  learned  to  meet  in  amity  and  kindness, 
and  though  divided  by  conflicting  opinions,  to  treat 
each  other  as  honest  and  as  worthy  of  respect  and  confi- 
dence. "The  glow  of  this  Hght "  is  in  many  of  our 
churches,  and  sheds  its  radiance  in  an  untold  number 
of  hearts.  Yes,  the  dream  in  its  essential  features  is 
at  least  partially  fulfilled.  Hands  are  not  only  clasped 
over  the  chasm,  but  the  chasm  itself  is  closing  up. 
What  remains  to  be  accomplished,  though  delayed, 
cannot  fail  to  issue  gloriously.  Christianity  must  fulfill 
its  destiny,  and  in  doing  so,  and  in  preparing  for  its 
final  conflict  with  evil,  union  will  be  attained,  not,  per- 
haps, in  the  majesty  of  a  single  body,  like  the  sun,  but 
in  the  unity  of  the  solemn  stars,  which  without  noise  or 
conflict  pursue  their  way,  illumine  each  other's  paths, 
and  shed  their  blended  light  upon  the  darkness. 


X 

THE  NATIONS   AND  RELIGION 


There  is  the  moral  of  all  human  tales  ; 

'Tis  but  the  same  rehearsal  of  the  past  ; 
First  Freedom,  and  then  Glory — when  that  fails, 

Wealth,  Vice,  Corruption — Barbarism  at  last. 
And  History,  with  all  her  volumes  vast, 

Hath  but  one  page  :  'tis  better  written  here 
Where  gorgeous  tyranny  hath  thus  amassed 

All  treasures,  all  delights  that  eye  or  ear, 
Heart,  soul  could  seek,  tongue  ask. 

— Byron 

Careless  seems  the  Great  Avenger  ;   History's  pages  but  record 
One  death-grapple  in  the  darkness  'twixt  all  systems  and  the  Word  ; 
Truth  forever  on  the  scaffold,  Wrong  forever  on  the  throne — 
Yet  that  scaffold  sways  the  Future,  and  behind  the  dim  unknown 
Standeth  God  within  the  shadow,  keeping  watch  above  his  own. 

—Lozvell. 


X 


THE    INFLUENCE    OF    CHRISTIANITY    ON    A    HUNDRED 
YEARS    OF     HISTORY 

Charles  Sumner  begins  one  of  his  scholarly  lectures 
with  these  words : 

History  is  sometimes  called  a  gallery,  where  are  exhibited 
scenes,  events,  and  characters  of  the  past.  It  may  also  be  called 
the  world' s  great  charnel-house,  where  are  gathered  coffins,  dead 
men' s  bones,  and  all  the  uncleanness  of  years  that  have  fled.  Thus 
is  it  both  an  example  and  a  warning  to  mankind.^ 

And  Christian  history  is  no  exception  to  this  enlightened 
estimate.  Many  things  that  have  taken  place  since  the 
ascension  of  our  Lord,  sanctioned  by  his  followers, 
though  condemned  by  his  teachings  and  Spirit,  have 
been  characterized  by  deceit  and  corruption,  and  have 
retarded  the  march  of  human  progress.  Religion  is 
never  benefited  by  apologies  and  courtly  exonerations 
from  blame,  when  her  name  has  been  dragged  in  the 
mire  by  her  degenerate  children.  If  she  has  been  put 
in  the  wrong,  and  if  her  fair  fame  has  been  blackened, 
let  the  wrong  be  distinctly  pointed  out  and  denounced  ; 
for  only  in  this  way  can  she  be  relieved  of  suspected 
complicity  with  the  guilt  of  her  misguided  adherents. 
If,  occasionally,  she  has  been  converted  into  a  whited 
sepulchre  to  satisfy  the  unnatural  cravings  of  her  ghoul- 
ish devotees,  it  is  due  to  mankind  that  this  perversion 
be  held  up  to  scorn  and  shame.      In  this  manner  her 

*  "White  Slavery  in  Barbary  States." 

457 


458      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

future  may  be  guarded  from  similar  calamitous  relapses, 
and  her  past  lamentable  shortcomings  be  made  to  serve 
as  beacon-lights  of  faithful  warning. 

But  while  in  the  annals  of  Christianity  there  is  much 
to  deplore,  there  is  far  more  to  inspire  and  delight. 
She  has,  indeed,  supplied  the  world  with  a  picture  gal- 
lery, where  heroic  figures  and  battle  paintings  tell  a  story 
of  unequaled  devotion  and  beneficence.  And  the  more 
thoroughly  it  is  inspected  and  studied,  the  more  pro- 
found becomes  the  impression  that  Christianity  is  cen- 
tral to  the  development  of  the  race,  and  has  had  much 
to  do  in  determining  its  aims  and  aspirations.  Hegel 
has  taught  that  history  is  the  progressive  self-realization 
of  a  universal  spirit  in  harmony  with  a  general  law ; 
while  Schopenhauer,  at  the  other  extreme,  has  main- 
tained that  there  is  no  advance  whatever,  but  only  a 
kaleidoscopic  succession  of  crimes  and  rascalities.  Nei- 
ther philosopher  may  be  entitled  to  our  unqualified 
assent,  but  assuredly  the  pessimist  advocates  what  is 
utterly  repugnant  to  reason.  Lately  an  interesting 
volume  has  appeared  which  covers  this  field  of  inquiry, 
and  its  author,  Mr.  Beattie  Crozier,  approaching  the 
subject  unbiased  by  religious  predilections,  perceives 
in  history  an  orderly  plan  and  development,  and  is 
impressed  by  ''  the  spectacle  of  so  many  generations 
of  human  souls  all  moving  unconsciously  toward  a 
predestined  end  "  ;  and  he  is  therefore  led  to  believe 
in  *' a  stupendous  and  over-arching  supernaturalism 
everywhere  enfolding  and  pervading  the  world  and  its 
affairs,  and  giving  scope  and  exercise  to  all  that  is 
properly  religious   in  thought   and  feeling."  ^     Of   this 

^  "The  History  of  Intellectual  Development." 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  459 

supernaturalism  Christianity  is  the  symbol  and  the 
token,  through  whose  offices  and  ministries  it  princi- 
pally, though  not  exclusively,  trains  the  race,  and  leads 
the  generations  onward  to  their  destined  goal.  Mr. 
Mallock  somewhere  says :  **  In  the  infinite  hush  of 
space  there  is  but  one  sound — the  tides  of  human 
history,  like  the  moaning  of  the  homeless  sea."  But 
humanity  is  not  homeless,  like  the  sea.  The  faith 
proclaimed  by  Christ  has  revealed  the  bourne  and 
haven,  and  is  itself  drawing  the  ''tides"  toward  the 
peaceful  harbor  where  the  "moaning"  shall  be  hushed 
forever. 

We  have  already  admitted  that  Christianity  has  been 
always  more  or  less  affected  by  its  earthly  surroundings, 
by  the  philosophies  and  the  type  of  culture  prevalent 
among,  and  the  social  and  political  institutions  accepted 
by,  a  people.  The  world  has  acted  on  religion  from 
without,  modifying  its  temper,  influencing  its  theology, 
and  supplying  it  with  a  medium  of  expression  varying 
with  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  nations  submit- 
ting to  its  authority.      Thus,  writes  Schlegel  : 

His  inborn  melancholy  and  profoundness  of  feeling  led  the 
Egyptian  as  a  hermit  into  the  wildest  deserts.  The  Greeks  brought 
to  religious  subjects  the  dialectical  acuteness  so  peculiar  to  them, 
and  early  enough  also  the  contentiousness  connected  therewith. 
The  Romans,  of  a  more  practical  turn  of  mind,  organized  the 
ritual  requisite  for  the  Christian  mysteries  with  becoming  dignity, 
and  instituted  a  most  beautiful  ceremonial,  and,  as  every  society 
requires  well-defined  laws,  they  drew  up  with  sagacity  the  rules  of 
life  necessary  for  the  larger  and  smaller  ecclesiastical  and  Christian 
societies.  The  Germans,  lastly,  fought  like  true  knights  for  the 
Christian  Faith,  when  once  they  had  embraced  it,  against  its 
fanatical    enemies.      Moreover,    instead   of  severing    Christianity 


460      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

from  life,  as  if  care  for  eternity  were  a  thing  apart,  they,  with  a 
full,  heartfelt  sentiment  of  the  priceless  treasure  they  had  acquired, 
gave  a  Christian  organization  to  their  whole  domestic  and  public 
life,  referring  it  to  and  basing  it  on  the  church.^ 

In  Great  Britain,  in  Russia,  and  in  the  United  States, 
religion  reflects  the  peculiar  genius  and  pursuits  of  the 
people,  that  is,  it  has  been  more  or  less  Russianized, 
and  Anglicanized,  and  Americanized.  The  national 
type,  the  national  tastes,  and  the  national  way  of  doing 
things,  are  seen  in  forms  of  service,  in  methods  of 
preaching,  and  in  that  indescribable  air  or  manner  which 
we  associate  with  different  races  as  the  distinctive  sign 
of  their  individuality.  In  this  sense,  every  country  has 
a  national  church  ;  and  more  than  that,  every  civiliza- 
tion its  own  peculiar  spiritual  counterpart. 

But  the  process  is  not  a  one-sided  process.  As  we 
might  have  supposed,  if  '*  the  earth  helps  the  woman," 
to  use  scriptural  imagery,  the  woman  helps  the  earth. 
There  is  action  and  reaction  ;  there  is  mutual  inter- 
change ;  there  is  the  world  influencing  the  church,  and 
then  there  is  the  church  overcoming  and  subduing  the 
world.  And  it  is  by  this  reciprocal  action,  with  the 
spiritual  gradually  attaining  the  ascendency,  that  the 
final  harmony  between  the  temporal  and  the  eternal 
will  be  effected,  and  the  ideal  of  a  social  life  informed 
and  inspired  by  the  divine  be  fully  realized.  There- 
fore, in  history  we  have  Christianity  disclosed  as  a 
mighty  force  acting  on  society  at  almost  every  point, 
tempering  its  policies,  refining  its  tastes,  checking  its 
passions,  quickening  its  intelligence,  purifying  its  ambi- 
tions.     Hence,  a  brilliant  writer  has  said  : 

^  "Lectures  on  Modern  History,"  p.  82. 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  46 1 

Christianity  was  the  electric  spark  which  first  roused  the  war- 
like nations  of  the  North,  rendered  them  susceptible  of  a  higher 
civilization,  stamped  the  peculiar  character,  and  founded  the 
political  institutions  of  modern  nations,  which  have  sprung  out  of 
such  heterogeneous  elements.  And  we  may  add,  Christianity  was 
the  connecting  power  which  linked  together  the  great  community 
of  European  nations,  not  only  in  the  moral  and  political  relations 
of  life,  but  in  science  and  modes  of  thinking.  The  church  was 
like  the  all-embracing  vault  of  heaven,  beneath  whose  kindly 
shelter  those  warlike  nations  began  to  settle  in  peace,  and  gradu- 
ally to  frame  their  laws  and  institutions.  Even  the  office  of  in- 
struction, the  heritage  of  ancient  knowledge,  the  promotion  of 
science,  and  of  all  that  tended  to  advance  the  progress  of  the 
human  mind,  devolved  to  the  care  of  the  church,  and  were  ex- 
clusively confined  to  the  Christian  schools.^ 

Even  if  every  statement  contained  in  this  tribute  can- 
not be  fully  sustained,  still  the  principle  involved  must 
be  accepted  as  true.  The  history  of  nineteen  centuries 
reveals  the  imprint  of  Christianity  ;  and  where  the  type 
of  Christianity  has  been  pure,  simple,  and  in  harmony 
with  the  spirit  of  Jesus,  its  influence  has  been  wholly 
advantageous  ;  but  where  its  type  has  been  more  or  less 
arrogant,  worldly,  and  despotic,  to  that  extent  its  yoke 
has  proven  a  questionable  good,  if  not  an  unquestionable 
evil.  In  common  with  the  majority  of  students  I  regard 
its  total  effect  on  the  course  of  history  as  beneficial. 
But  of  its  power  there  can  be  no  debate.  Whether 
conferring,  in  accord  with  its  essential  genius,  unalloyed 
blessings,  or  contributing,  through  its  perversion,  woes 
and  wrongs  to  the  already  afflicted  race,  still  its  imperial 
might  has  been  continually  manifested.  Whatever  else 
it  may  at  times  have  been,  it  has  never  been  impotent. 


Schlegel's  "Philosophy  of  History,"  p.  342. 


462      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Occasionally  some  intrepid  soul  now  declares  that  it  has 
fallen  into  decay,  that  its  vigor  has  declined,  and  that 
the  nations  have  really  nothing  to  hope  for  or  to  fear 
from  its  power.  And  yet,  with  what  solicitude  do  the 
great  monarchies  of  Europe  study  every  move  of  the 
papacy,  and  with  what  apprehensions  do  they  regard 
every  sign  of  its  encroachment  on  their  authority!  How 
eagerly  politicians  court  its  approval  in  America,  and 
lend  themselves  to  its  assumptions  in  the  far-off  archi- 
pelago !  With  what  intense  interest  is  the  relation  of 
the  Greek  Church  to  the  Russian  government  studied 
by  all  who  perceive  that  in  the  future  a  vast  portion  of 
the  earth  may  become  Cossack  ;  and  with  what  bewil- 
dered surprise  do  they  learn  that  its  sway  over  tsar 
and  people  is  more  absolute  than  had  been  supposed 
possible  !  Moreover,  with  what  concern  the  "  Noncon- 
formist conscience"  is  contemplated  in  Great  Britain 
by  those  who  are  meditating  some  act  hostile  to  the 
public  good  or  the  national  honor.  No  ;  whether  for 
weal  or  woe,  the  power  of  Christianity  is  still  a  momen- 
tous fact.  Men  may  gird  at  it,  they  may  mock  it,  they 
may  flout  it,  and  they  may  deny  it  in  what  terms  they 
please  ;  but,  nevertheless,  kings  and  princes,  statesmen 
and  publicists,  and  every  one  who  has  to  do  with  large 
affairs,  are  compelled  to  take  it  into  account  in  their 
plans  and  dealings. 

In  what  directions  and  to  what  extent  this  power  has 
been  exercised  on  the  last  hundred  years  of  history,  it 
is  our  purpose  to  investigate.  And  the  inquiry  may 
prove  helpful  in  more  ways  than  one.  It  will  not  only 
enable  us  to  perceive  the  important  part  played  by 
Christianity  in    the  world-movements   of    the   century, 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  463 

but  it  will  assist  us  to  understand  her  relationship  to 
far-reaching  events,  whose  end  is  not  yet,  and  will,  I 
think,  convince  us  that  she  is  still  the  most  gigantic 
and  unconquerable  force  on  the  earth  to-day.  Much 
that  I  am  to  describe  may  evoke  criticism  or  condem- 
nation, but  more  will,  I  am  sure,  awaken  gratitude  and 
satisfaction,  and  carry  with  it  the  conviction  that  Chris- 
tianity, whatever  may  have  been  her  errors  and  her  un- 
justifiable alliances  and  complications,  holds  in  her  hand 
the  destiny  of  mankind,  and  must  in  the  end  shape  that 
destiny  in  harmony  with  her  vocation  as  the  saviour  of 
men  and  nations. 

Many  beneficial  changes  accomplished  during  the 
nineteenth  century,  may,  in  a  very  large  degree,  be 
attributed  to  the  Christian  spirit,  which  throughout  this 
period  has  been  striving  to  emancipate  itself  from  eccle- 
siastical conservatism  and  prejudice,  and  from  the  re- 
straints of  prudential  church  officialism.  It  has  been 
an  era  of  reform.  There  is  not  a  government  in  Europe 
where  the  name  of  Jesus  is  honored,  whatever  may  be 
its  present  deflection  from  integrity,  that  is  not  morally 
far  in  advance  of  its  predecessor  a  hundred  years  ago. 
Civil  service  has  made  immense  strides,  and  life  and 
property  were  never  more  secure.  Abuses  have  been 
remedied,  cruelties  have  been  suppressed,  irritating  ex- 
actions have  been  annulled,  the  franchise  has  been 
extended,  and  the  area  of  human  freedom  has  been 
enlarged.  The  United  States  and  Mexico,  in  varying 
measure,  have  shared  in  these  great  improvements,  and 
there  are  no  nations  that  excel  them  in  their  endeavors 
to-day  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  people  by  schools, 
sanitation,  and  efficient  police  surveillance.      That  they 


464      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  other  States  are  still  far  from  perfection,  and  drift 
into  evil  ways  and  countenance  ruinous  policies,  we  do 
not  deny  ;  but,  remember,  we  are  comparing  them  with 
earUer  stages  of  civil  administrations,  and  not  with  the 
ideal  condition  toward  which  they  are  journeying,  and 
from  which  they  are  yet  a  long  way  off.  *'  Reform  "  con- 
tinues to  be  the  cry  ;  and  when  its  origin  is  sought,  it 
is  found  to  be  the  first-born  of  that  spirit  which  in  Tele- 
machus  flamed  out  irresistibly  against  gladiatorial  ex- 
hibitions, and  which  in  Ambrose  asserted  the  rights  of 
humanity  against  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  and  which 
achieved  its  most  notable  triumph  in  the  abrogation  of 
chattel  slavery.  That  in  this  divine  event  other  forces 
met,  some  of  them  political  and  others  purely  revolu- 
tionary, is  not  to  be  questioned  ;  but,  nevertheless,  it  is 
impossible  to  account  for  it  on  the  supposition  that 
these  alone,  and  quite  apart  from  religion,  had  to  do 
with  the  initiative  and  progress.  Given  the  Gospels, 
with  their  constant  protest  against  human  degradation 
and  their  reiterated  afifirmation  of  brotherhood,  read  in 
numerous  churches,  through  countless  generations,  and 
there  could  hardly  have  failed  to  be  evolved  intense 
antagonism  against  slavery  ;  and  unless  this  is  taken 
into  consideration,  no  explanation  of  the  abolition  cru- 
sade is  satisfactory.  But  while  this  wonderful  move- 
ment sprang  primarily  from  this  source,  various  were 
the  allies  that  hastened  its  success,  and  which  trans- 
ferred it  from  the  retired,  quiet  domain  of  ordinary  phi- 
lanthropy to  that  of  political  and  military  activity.  And 
thus  the  Christian  spirit  in  its  detestation  of  bondage 
became  in  modern  times  historical  and  the  maker  of 
history. 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  465 

On  July  25,  1 8 16,  Lord  Exmouth  sailed  with  a  mag- 
nificent English  fleet  to  reduce  Algiers,  and  put  an  end 
forever  to  white  slavery  in  the  Barbary  States.  He  was 
accompanied  by  Admiral  Van  Capellan,  of  the  Dutch 
navy,  with  five  frigates.  His  great  work  was  finished 
on  August  30th,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  Prince 
Regent,  Christian  slavery  was  abolished,  all  slaves  were 
set  at  liberty,  and  the  moneys  that  had  been  received 
during  a  year  of  time  for  the  redemption  of  slaves  were 
restored.  Thus  was  brought  to  a  close  one  of  the  most 
shameful  oppressions  that  for  ages  had  practically  de- 
fied the  arms  of  Europe.  Various  expeditions  had  been 
undertaken  against  this  savage  and  piratical  power  : — 
one  under  Cardinal  Ximenes,  in  1509,  another  directed 
by  Charles  V.,  in  1535,  in  both  of  which  successes  were 
achieved;  and  yet  another  in  1541,  when  the  emperor 
and  his  fleet  were  driven  back  by  a  terrible  tempest  to 
the  coast  of  Spain.  England  likewise  attempted  to 
subdue  these  stubborn  tyrants  at  different  times  ;  and 
the  United  States  brought  them  to  terms  under  the 
guns  of  the  gallant  Commodores  Bainbridge  and  Deca- 
tur, December,  181 5,  not  however  without  previous 
humiliating  failures,  arising  from  treaty-making  and 
money-paying  for  the  release  of  Americans  held  in 
slavery,  in  one  of  which  treaties,  for  the  sake  of  con- 
serving the  good-will  of  Mohammedanism  and  prosper- 
ing our  trade,  it  was  solemnly  declared  that  ''the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  of  America  is  not  in  any 
sense  founded  on  the  Christian  religion."  ^  This  shame- 
ful repudiation  by  ofificials  ready  to  imitate  the  infamy 
of   Iscariot,  availed   us   nothing.      In    1801   the   Bey  of 

^  Lyman's  "Diplomacy,"  Vol.  II.,  pp.  380,  381. 
2E 


466      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Tripoli  declared  war  against  the  United  States ;  and 
in  1805  the  war  was  brought  to  a  close,  not  without 
glory  to  the  American  arms,  by  a  fresh  treaty.  Then 
the  Bey  of  Algiers  took  up  the  sword  against  the 
)'oung  republic,  and  the  contest  terminated  with  results 
more  to  our  credit.  But,  still,  it  was  reserved  to  Eng- 
land to  drive  forever  the  corsair's  vessels  from  the  seas, 
to  reduce  his  last  great  stronghold,  and  to  give  final 
deliverance  to  those  whom  he  scornfully  had  called 
'*  Christian  dogs,"  and  had  treated  as  beasts  of  burden. 
Long  before  this  struggle  had  reached  its  acute  stage, 
but  after  it  had  commenced,  another  chapter  in  the 
annals  of  slavery  had  been  opened.  Charles  V.  con- 
ceded to  a  Flemish  courtier,  15  17,  the  privilege  of  im- 
porting into  the  West  Indies  four  thousand  blacks  from 
Africa;  and  in  the  year  1620 — year  memorable  to  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers — while  an  English  fleet  was  seeking 
the  freedom  of  Englishmen  held  in  bondage  to  Algerian 
masters,  African  slavery  was  introduced  into  the  colonies 
of  North  America.^  Here  then  were  implanted  the 
seeds  of  future  bitterness,  wretchedness,  and  discord. 
Nor  was  it  hard  to  see  the  pathetic  analogy  that  existed 
in  coming  time  between  the  institution  as  it  developed 
in  America  and  as  it  was  in  the  Barbary  States.  Many 
reformers  seized  on  this  comparison,  and  brought  it  to 
bear  on  the  conscience  of  the  youthful  republic.  In 
England,  likewise,  the  strange  incongruity  of  a  nation 
fighting  against  slavery  in  one  quarter  of  the  globe  and 
practising  it  in  another,  was  dilated  on  with  much  tell- 
ing eloquence.  Thus,  the  British  and  American  cannon, 
thundering  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  awakened  searching 

^  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  States,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  189. 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  46/ 

echoes  in   heart   and  conscience  of  kindred  people  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

How  these  echoes  gave  place  to  passionate  declamation 
against  wrong,  and  how  the  declamation  was  changed  into 
logical  argument  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  how 
from  that  emancipation  in  the  West  Indies  proceeded  ; 
and  how  in  the  United  States  this  humane  enactment 
influenced  contemporaneous  thought ;  and  how  anti- 
slavery  literature  spread  through  the  land  ;  and  how 
Missouri  Compromises,  Dred  Scott  decisions,  and  John 
Brown  raids  grew  into  civil  war  amid  whose  volcanic 
flames  slavery  perished  forever,  its  doom  having  been 
preceded  by  the  freedom  of  the  serfs  in  Russia,  1861, 
followed  by  the  loosening  of  shackles  everywhere,  I 
shall  not  venture  to  describe.  But  this  titanic  conflict 
has  furnished  to  America  her  national  epic,  in  which  as 
time  grows  older  the  world  will  discern  more  clearly 
than  we  do  now  the  majesty  of  its  heroes,  and  the  ter- 
rible sublimity  of  its  tumultuous  battles.  Though  of 
the  men  and  their  deeds  I  must  not  undertake  to  write, 
who  does  not  know  that  the  overthrow  of  slavery  was 
the  destruction  of  an  old  world  and  the  beginning  of  a 
new  ^  Since  its  doom  the  industrial  world  has  taken 
on  a  new  form.  It  is  not  as  it  was  ;  although  it  has 
drifted  away  from  some  of  the  fair  ideals  which  were 
held  before  its  eyes  when  the  war  against  oppression 
was  being  waged.  A  more  humane  spirit  has  taken 
possession  of  the  earth.  Benefactions  are  more  gener- 
ous and  more  frequent  ;  reforms  are  more  common,  and 
the  dignity  of  man  as  man  is  more  generally  recognized. 
But  whether  we  can  draw  clearly  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween that  dark  past  and  this  brighter  present  or  not, 


468      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

it  is  Still  true  that  reflecting  minds  admit  its  reality  and 
its  profound  significance.  And  whether  they  admit  it 
or  not,  they  sometimes  must  have  suspected  that  the 
blood  shed  to  purge  away  the  guilt  of  slavery  from  the 
land  admonishes  us,  by  the  terror  of  a  similar  penalty, 
to  countenance  no  form  of  bondage,  whether  in  distant 
possessions  or  at  home.  "  Blood  will  have  blood,"  and 
for  every  drop  that  flows  from  the  cruel  lash,  or  is  wrung 
from  the  torturing  agonies  of  unrequited  toil,  atonement 
in  blood  will  ever  be  demanded.  The  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity on  this  historical  event,  or  on  this  series  of  events, 
attaining  the  culmination  point  in  widespread  human 
emancipation,  recalls  her  connection  with  the  patriotic 
aspirations  of  the  Greeks  flaming  into  struggles  for 
political  independence  during  the  earlier  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Then,  as  in  her  struggles  with  the 
slave  powers,  her  spirit  was  wholly  on  the  side  of  free- 
dom. In  a  sense  it  was  the  renewal  of  the  old  conflict 
between  the  Crescent  and  the  Cross,  the  Cross  disdain- 
ing longer  to  be  considered  by  the  Moslem  the  badge 
of  an  inferior  race  or  of  an  abject  subject  class.  Many 
changes  had  taken  place  since  that  eventful  day,  May 
29,  1453,  when  Constantinople  was  captured  by  the 
Turks,  and  Mohammed  II.  entered  the  city  by  the  gate 
of  St.  Romanus,  humming  to  himself  the  lines  from  a 
Persian  poet  : 

The  spicier  has  spun  her  web  in  the  palace  of  the  Caesars, 
The  owl  has  sung  her  watch  song  on  the  towers  of  Afrasiab. 

The  Greek  population  throughout  the  Peloponnesus, 
Moldavia,  Wallachia,  Crete,  had  been  kept  in  servile 
subjection,  though   it   is  to  be  remembered  that  quite  a 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  469 

number  of  its  more  acute  and  intelligent  representatives 
had  been  chosen  by  several  sultans  to  act  as  dragomans, 
and  to  serve  as  hospodars,  and  to  assist  in  international 
diplomacy.  From  these  favored  ones  there  had  de- 
veloped in  Constantinople  society  a  wealthy  community, 
known  as  the  *' Phanariots,"  whose  sons  were  educated 
in  the  best  European  universities,  and  who  in  this  way 
were  brought  into  touch  with  the  liberal  opinions  every- 
where current  at  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Some  writers  claim  that  the  French  Revolu- 
tion was  the  real  instrument  that  roused  in  the  Greeks 
a  desire  for  independence,  which  found  expression  when 
Prince  Alexander  Ypsilantes  crossed  the  Pruth,  March 
6,  1 82 1,  and  which,  after  varying  fortunes,  was  realized 
by  January,  1822.  But  there  was  another  influence 
back  of  this  inspiring  movement.  After  the  invasion  of 
Russia  by  Napoleon,  18 12,  serious  conflicts  distracted 
the  dominions  of  Sultan  Mahmoud  IL, — styled  ''the 
shadow  of  the  Almighty  upon  earth," — and  as  he  heard 
that  the  Greeks  sympathized  with  the  Servians  and 
Albanians  in  their  fierce  resistance,  he  issued  the  follow- 
ing decree  :  ''  Every  Christian  capable  of  bearing  arms 
must  die.  The  boys  shall  be  circumcised  and  educated 
in  the  military  discipline  of  Europe  to  form  a  supple- 
mentary corps  of  Janissaries."  What  was  this  decree 
of  extermination  but  an  appeal  to  the  smoldering  fires 
of  religious  passions  and  prejudices.'^  There  could  be 
but  one  answer  :  Germanos,  archbishop  of  Patras,  em- 
ployed all  authority  of  his  office  to  inflame  the  ardor  of 
the  Greeks. 

To  show  how  deeply  the  destiny  of  Christianity  en- 
tered into  the  conflict,  it  should  be  observed  how  fre- 


4/0      CIIKISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

quently  since  its  close  the  Sublime  Porte  in  its  treaties 
with  other  powers  has  given  assurances  that  the  fol- 
lowers of  Christ  should  remain  unmolested  in  its  do- 
minions. This  promise  appears  in  the  treaty  of  xVdrian- 
ople,  1829;  also  in  the  imperial  rescript,  the  Hatti 
Sherif,  1839;  ^g^ii"i  ii"i  the  pledges  made  by  the  Sultan 
Abdul-Medjid  in  1844;  and  even  more  distinctly  in 
1850,  when  the  same  sultan  guaranteed  the  Protestants 
liberty  of  conscience  and  all  the  rights  enjoyed  by  other 
Christian  communities.  And  after  the  Crimean  War 
ended,  1856,  these  concessions  were  confirmed  in  the 
most  solemn  manner  and  in  these  generous  terms  : 

As  all  forms  of  religion  are  and  shall  be  freely  professed  in  my 
dominion,  no  subject  of  my  empire  shall  be  hindered  in  the  exer- 
cise of  the  religion  that  he  professes,  nor  shall  he  in  any  way  be 
annoyed  on  this  account. 

Put  wherefore  the  need  of  these  repeated  declarations, 
and  wherefore  the  care  of  diplomats,  representing  Chris- 
tian powers,  to  exact  them  on  every  available  occasion, 
if  the  religious  question  has  not  from  the  beginning 
been  the  chief  issue  between  the  Sublime  Porte  and  the 
revolted  Greeks  }  While  the  Greeks  have  refrained 
from  proclaiming  a  crusade,  and  while  the  community 
has  constantly  been  stirred  up  by  the  Turks,  still  had 
there  been  no  Cross  to  defend  there  would  probably 
have  been  no  such  enmity,  and  few,  if  any,  of  the  bar- 
barities that  ensued.  The  presence  of  Christianity, 
therefore,  in  the  Turkish  Empire,  with  the  ideals  it 
fosters  and  the  sacred  isolation  it  maintains,  was  a 
potent  factor,  and  I  believe  the  chief  though  not  the 
only  one,  in   the   series  of   events    which   make   up  the 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  4/1 

history  of  the  struggle  for  the  resurrection  of  Greece. 
It  was  an  episode  at  once  brilliant  and  bloody.  Multi- 
tudes of  Greeks  were  murdered  in  Constantinople  and 
Adrianople  by  the  orders  of  the  sultan.  On  the  fifteenth 
of  June,  182 1,  five  archbishops  and  many  laymen  were 
hanged  in  the  streets  of  the  former  city,  Salonica  was 
decorated  with  **a  ghastly  dangling  fringe  of  Christian 
heads,"  and  it  is  said  that  twenty-five  thousand  people 
were  massacred  on  one  day  in  the  island  of  Scio,  and 
thirty  thousand  women  and  children  were  sold  into 
slavery.  Heroic  deeds  in  defense  of  the  outraged  peo- 
ple were  wrought  by  the  Greek  fleet  under  Hastings 
and  Cochrane,  who  had  forfeited  their  English  commis- 
sions that  they  might  espouse  the  cause  of  the  insur- 
gents. Kanaris,  Marco  Bozzaris,  and  others,  were  im- 
mortalized by  their  devotion  to  freedom,  and  Lord 
Byron,  rousing  himself  from  his  lethargy,  devoted  life 
and  fortune  to  its  victory.  He  was  followed  by  the 
sympathetic  well  wishes  of  thousands,  and  had  he  not 
died  soon  after  his  arrival  at  Missolonghi,  he  probably 
would  have  been  made  king  of  Greece.  England  offi- 
cially was  drawn  into  the  contest,  for  Canning  per- 
ceived that  it  would  be  bad  statesmanship  to  permit 
Russia  alone  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  Greek  Chris- 
tians, and  moreover  the  sentiment  of  the  churches  of 
Great  Britain  was  openly  hostile  to  the  Turk.  The 
pressure  from  this  quarter  was  too  great  for  a  prime 
minister  to  ignore  or  resist.  A  fleet  was  dispatched, 
but  before  war  had  been  formally  declared  the  brilliant 
victory  of  Navarino  was  won,  October  27,  1827.  Rus- 
sia sent  an  army  under  Diebitsch,  and  after  enormous 
losses  at   Silistria,  Brail ono,  and  Varna,  terms  of  peace 


4/2      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

were  discussed,  and  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  was  signed. 
The  kingdom  of  Greece  was  ultimately  formed,  and 
though  its  influence  on  the  affairs  of  Europe  has  not 
been  extraordinary,  still  only  a  few  years  ago  it  justified 
its  creation  by  the  noble  way  in  which  it  espoused  the 
cause  of  Armenian  Christians ;  and  though  defeated  in 
that  glorious  championship,  its  chivalrous  action  may 
have  served  to  terminate  the  atrocities  then  being  com- 
mitted by  reminding  the  Turk  that  he  might  yet  go  too 
far  and  bring  a  united  Christendom  thundering  at  the 
gates  of  Constantinople. 

The  Crimean  war  may  be  taken  as  a  third  chapter  in 
the  story  we  are  relating.  And  this  too  had  its  origin 
in  religious  issues,  and  brought  into  relief  the  religious 
ambition  of  Russia.  It  is  well  known  that  Peter  the 
Great  predicted  that,  as  Europe  had  been  compelled  in 
the  past  to  submit  to  hordes  of  conquering  races  from 
the  East,  so  would  it  at  some  future  day  be  forced  to 
yield  to  the  Muscovite  power.  He,  therefore,  urged  on 
his  successors  the  importance  of  acquiring  Constantino- 
ple and  the  commerce  of  India.  But  while  these  cir- 
cumstances are  familiar  to  intelligent  people,  they  do 
not  as  fully  realize  that  these  dreams  of  world-wide 
empire  are  closely  allied  with  the  firm  belief  that  the 
Eastern  Church  is  likewise  destined  to  supremacy.  And 
yet  evidence  of  this  expectation  are  not  far  to  find. 
Mouravicff,  when  a  member  of  the  governing  synod, 
declared  that  he  and  his  associates  were  ''  thoroughly 
convinced  that  the  famous  Oriental  Sees  will  recover 
their  ancient  splendor."  More  recently  a  Russian 
writer  has  expressed  himself  in  the  same  spirit,  as  fol- 
lows : 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  473 

There  remains  now  but  one  orthodox  empire.  The  prophecies 
are  accomplished  which  long  ago  announced  that  the  sons  of 
Ishmael  should  conquer  Byzantium.  Perhaps  we  are  destined 
also  to  see  the  fulfillment  of  that  prophecy  which  promises  that  the 
Russians  shall  triumph  over  the  children  of  Ishmael,  and  reign 
over  the  seven  hills  of  Constantinople.  ^ 

And  in  harmony  with  this  exalted  faith,  the  Tsar  Nicholas 
in  his  proclamation  of  March  26,  1848,  employed  this 
language  :  **  Hear  and  bow  down,  ye  Gentiles,  for  God 
is  with  us  "  ;  and  when  addressing  the  Russian  and 
Polish  bishops,  May  26,  1849,  ^"^^  said  :  *'  The  true  faith 
survives  in  Russia  only  ;  in  the  West  it  is  utterly  lost." 
In  view  of  these  sentiments  we  can  well  understand 
the  significance  of  what  Mr.  Kinglake  states  regarding 
this  monarch  : 

He  was  always  eager  to  come  forward  as  an  ardent  and  even 
ferocious  defender  of  the  Greek  Christians  in  Turkey  ;  but  he 
dreaded  interfering  with  Turkey  when  the  opportunity  was  offered 
him  unless  he  could  get  the  alliance  of  England. 

What  more  natural  then,  when  the  controversy  was 
renewed  in  1851,  concerning  the  Church  of  the  Nativity 
in  Bethlehem  and  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
at  Jerusalem,  and  the  prince-president,  Napoleon,  de- 
manded enlarged  privileges  for  the  Catholic,  than  that 
the  Greek  Christian  should  appeal  to  the  tsar  ?  The 
momentous  question  involved  was  whether  the  Latin 
priests  might  possess  a  key  of  the  great  door  of  the 
chapel  in  the  grotto  at  Bethlehem,  and  whether  in  the 
sacred  edifice  above  ground  a  silver  star  with  the  arms 
of  France  on  it  might  be  suspended.  The  Greeks  had 
had  the  ascendency  in  everything  pertaining  to  the  holy 

1  "  Question  Religieuse  d''  Orient^''''  etc.,  p.  97. 


474      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

shrines  since  1740,  and  they  looked  on  these  new  privi- 
leges as  seriously  threatening  their  supremacy.  They 
would  not  yield.  The  controversy  grew  in  fierce  and 
impassioned  intensity,  and  the  tsar  enthusiastically 
championed  the  cause  of  his  own  church.  He  saw  that 
it  furnished  an  opportunity  for  a  movement  favorable  to 
the  realization  of  the  dreams  of  Peter  the  Great,  and 
the  first  move  in  the  game  was  taken  when  he  marched 
an  army  toward  the  Danubian  provinces.  As  Turkish 
soldiers  had  charge  over  the  territory  occupied  by  the 
holy  shrines,  the  questions  in  dispute  were  referred  to 
Constantinople,  where  the  representatives  of  the  nations 
involved,  including  England,  met  in  conference  and 
came  to  an  amicable  agreement.  For  a  time  it  seemed 
that  the  prospects  of  immediate  war  had  been  happily 
diminished.  But  there  yet  remained  a  peril.  The 
tsar  desired  to  be  given  legal  power  over  the  Greek 
patriarch  at  Constantinople,  and  to  be  acknowledged  as 
the  protector  of  Greek  Christians  throughout  the  Turk- 
ish Empire.  But  this  demand  France  and  England  were 
not  prepared  to  allow,  and  the  Sublime  Porte,  encour- 
aged by  their  opposition,  was  more  than  ready  to  reject. 
At  this  point,  then,  Russia  failed  in  diplomacy ;  and 
though  the  plenipotentiaries  of  various  European  States 
tried  to  compose  the  mind  of  the  tsar  and  reconcile  him 
to  his  disappointment,  inflamed  by  fanatical  zeal  for  the 
one  holy  and  orthodox  church  he  persisted  in  his  mad 
ambition.  Mis  determined  stand  led  to  outbreaks  of 
Mohammedan  fanaticism  in  Constantinople,  and  the 
sultan  was  urged  to  declare  war  against  the  infidel.  The 
Christian  population  was  seriously  menaced  by  this  fury, 
and  that  it  might  be  checked,  and  that   Russia  in  seek- 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  4/5 

ing  to  gratify  her  political  and  religious  ambition  might 
be  controlled,  the  English  and  French  ambassadors 
ordered  their  respective  fleets  to  pass  the  Dardanelles. 

War  immediately  ensued.  Of  its  progress  and  hor- 
rors it  is  not  necessary  to  write.  Vividly  has  its  his- 
tory been  portrayed  by  Mr.  Kinglake,  in  whose  volumes 
we  find  this  estimate  of  its  character: 

This  war  was  deadly.  It  brought,  so  to  say,  to  the  grave  full  a 
million  of  workmen  and  soldiers.  It  consumed  a  pitiless  share 
of  wealth.  It  shattered  the  framework  of  the  European  system, 
and  made  it  hard  for  any  nation  henceforth  to  be  safe  except  by 
its  sheer  strength. 

In  compensation,  if  compensation  it  can  be  called,  for 
such  sacrifices,  Russia  destroyed  her  fortresses  on  the 
Black  Sea ;  that  sea  was  opened  to  the  trade  of  western 
Europe ;  Sardinia  gained  the  recognition  she  had  sought  ; 
and  Turkey  promised  that  Christians  should  stand  on 
an  equal  footing  with  Mussulmans  in  the  empire.  And 
thus  the  unspeakable  agony  closed.  That  is,  it  ended 
for  the  time  being,  and  only  so  long  as  the  Sublime 
Porte  considered  it  dangerous  to  renew  the  murderous 
policy  of  ruin  and  extermination  against  defenseless 
Christians.^ 

In  1876  the  peace  of  Europe  was  again  disturbed  by 
the  "  Great  Assassin  "  of  that  day,  who,  incited  by  his 
furious  hatred  of  the  Cross,  let  loose  his  soldiers  on  the 
helpless  people  of  Bulgaria.  More  than  a  hundred  vil- 
lages were  destroyed.  An  entire  schoolful  of  children 
was  brutally  slaughtered  ;  and  it  is  computed  that  in 
the  month  of  June  alone  forty  thousand  of  the  popula- 

1  See  Kinglake,  "  Crimean  War  "  ;  Latimer,  "  Russia  and  Turkey  "  ; 
Freeman,  "Turks  in  Europe"  ;    Greene,  "Armenian  Crisis." 


47^      CIIRlSTIANllY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tion  were  massacred.  These  outrages  produced  a  re- 
vulsion of  feeling,  and  generally  the  sultan  was  de- 
nounced. But  Alexander  II.  of  Russia  was  not  satis- 
fied with  the  execration  of  the  murderer.  He  demanded 
that  the  porte  should  fulfill  its  treaty  obligations,  and 
immediately  marched  his  army  through  Roumania  to 
the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  Mikhail  Dimitrivitch 
Skobeleff,  the  "  white  general,"  as  he  was  called,  was 
given  command,  and  in  every  respect  justified  his  im- 
perial master's  confidence.  Of  his  heroic  struggles 
before  Plevna,  and  of  the  devotion  of  his  men,  whom 
he  affectionately  termed  his  'Mions,"  and  of  the  vicis- 
situdes of  fortune  which  attended  him,  I  dare  not  un- 
dertake to  write,  as  I  should  be  carried  away  by  en- 
thusiasm from  my  real  purpose.  Let  it  suffice,  the 
Turks  were  beaten,  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano  was 
signed,  which  afterward  had  to  give  way  to  the  treaty 
of  Berlin.  This  checked  Russian  ambition,  and,  as 
the  events  of  the  last  ten  years  have  proven,  deprived 
Christians  in  Turkey  of  the  only  defender  who  has 
cared  to  take  up  the  sword  in  their  behalf.  By  this 
treaty  again  religious  liberty  and  personal  safety  were 
guaranteed  by  the  porte,  and  pledges  were  given  for 
the  execution  of  needed  reforms  in  Armenia. 

This  was  in  July,  1878,  and  from  that  date  up  to 
1894-5,  the  great  powers  were  in  constant  communi- 
cation with  the  porte  regarding  the  fulfillment  of  these 
solemn  engagements.  They  appealed,  they  threatened, 
they  negotiated — and  hoped.  Doubtless  more  afraid  of 
each  other  than  of  their  common  foe,  they  simply  be- 
trayed the  helpless  subjects  of  the  sultan,  and  in  the 
hour  of  need  abandoned  them  to  his  cruelty.     The  Ar- 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  477 

meiiian  massacres — twelve  thousand  victims  in  Sassoun 
alone — horrified  Europe  and  America,  and  called  forth 
many  a  Christian  protest.  But  on  both  continents  the 
generous  emotions  that  cried  out  for  intervention,  were 
stifled  by  questions  of  prudence  and  the  right  of  nations 
to  immolate  their  own  citizens.  Meetings  were  held, 
resolutions  were  passed,  money  was  subscribed  to  suc- 
cor survivors  from  the  cruelty  of  the  Turk  ;  but  the 
only  available  things,  a  fleet  and  an  army,  were  not  forth- 
coming, even  though  Europe  was  being  impoverished 
to  supply  both.  The  only  relief  to  this  passive  policy 
of  complicity  with  outrage  and  assassination,  was  fur- 
nished by  the  Greeks,  who  were  shamefully  left  to 
themselves  by  the  powers  who  were  bound  to  make  the 
cause  of  the  Armenians  their  own.  But  their  vigorous 
action  has  been  followed  by  a  lull  in  the  Eastern  tragedy, 
though  there  are  rumors  as  I  write  that  it  is  fast  coming 
to  an  end.  Unquestionably,  this  long  and  bitter  hos- 
tility of  the  Crescent  cannot  be  suppressed  in  coming- 
time.  It  wants  only  a  fitting  opportunity  to  break  out 
with  renewed  violence.  We  should  always  remember 
that  the  Ottoman  government  rests  on  a  religious  foun- 
dation, and  that  the  official  prayer  of  Islam  includes  a 
petition  that  Allah  would  destroy  the  enemies  of  their 
faith,  and  would  give  "their  friends,  their  possessions 
and  their  race,  their  wealth  and  their  lands,  as  booty 
to  the  Moslems." 

Thus,  then,  the  Turks  are  bound  by  their  faith,  by 
their  prayers,  as  well  as  by  race  prejudice,  to  carry  on  a 
war  of  extermination.  And  yet  the  officials  in  England 
and  elsewhere,  knowing  this,  and  knowing  that  a  real 
intervention  would  be  effective,  and  knowing  as  well  that 


47^      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

no  reliance  can  be  placed  in  Mohammedan  promises, 
hesitated,  paused,  shuffled,  and  not  only  brought  on 
themselves  a  measure  of  guilt  for  the  crime  committed, 
but  left  the  door  open  for  it  to  be  repeated  when  it  suits 
the  sultan's  pleasure.  But,  in  the  meanwhile,  through 
these  very  persecutions  Christianity  has  grown  in  dig- 
nity and  power.  She  is  clear  of  this  bloodguiltincss. 
She  has  not  incited  to  persecution  ;  and  she  has  nobly 
pleaded  in  thousands  of  pulpits  the  cause  of  the  op- 
pressed ;  and  she  has  been  taught  anew  a  lesson  which 
will  have  a  salutary  effect  on  the  whole  world  by  and 
by — not  to  trust  in  princes  and  governments,  as  they 
continually  betray  her  and  her  children  with  apparently 
no  compunction  when  they  imagine  that  their  own  ag- 
grandizement is  at  stake.  When,  after  Sassoun,  a  pro- 
fessed Christian  emperor  can  call  the  Sultan  Abdul 
Hamid  his  friend,  and  rest  in  peace  beneath  the  gilded 
roof  of  the  Yildiz  Palace,  the  church  may  well  disen- 
tangle herself  from  all  formal  and  official  concordats  of 
every  kind  with  secular  governments  ;  for  history  has 
already  decided  that  such  as  he  would  betray  Christ 
himself  if  the  pieces  of  silver  were  only  sufficiently  nu- 
merous. 

The  scene  of  the  drama  we  are  following  now  changes, 
and  we  approach  a  conflict,  the  religious  significance  of 
which,  and  the  ultimate  influence  of  which  on  the  des- 
tiny of  nations,  few  historical  writers  have  as  yet  con- 
sidered. In  1850  Cardinal  Wiseman  uttered  words 
which  thrilled  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  with  hope, 
for  he  said  that  *'  the  decisive  battle  against  Protestant- 
ism would  be  fought  on  the  sands  of  the  Mark  of  Bran- 
denburg."     He  perceived  that  the  hope  of  the  papacy 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  479 

lay  in  the  restoration  of  the  German  Empire  with  Austria 
at  the  head,  and  that  in  achieving  this  end  war  must 
overwhehri  the  Protestant  Germans.  And  it  must  be 
allowed  that  when  he  spoke  the  indications  were  favor- 
able to  the  realization  of  his  sanguine,  not  to  say  san- 
guinary, expectations.  Since  the  days  of  Olmiitz  Prus- 
sia had  witnessed  the  aggrandizement  of  Austria,  under 
whose  leadership  the  diet  of  Princes  was  held  at  Frank- 
furt in  1863.  Moreover,  she  could  not  have  failed  to 
observe  that  these  princes  favored  Austria,  and  that  her 
rival  was  sustained  by  the  potent  influence  of  the  papacy. 
Indeed,  Austria  had  concluded  a  concordat  with  the 
church  in  1855,  which  practically  conceded  to  her  the 
supremacy  over  the  State  that  had  been  her  proud  pre- 
rogative in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  for  the  loss  of  which 
she  had  groaned  since  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  It  was 
also  proclaimed  by  Ultramontanes,  like  Bishop  Kettler, 
of  Mayence,  that  it  was  the  right  of  the  church  to  re- 
vive the  old  German  Empire,  and  thus  to  re-establish 
her  own  former  power  and  authority  over  it.  This  is 
what  the  bishop  meant  when  in  his  pastoral  of  1855  he 
said  :  "■  When  the  spiritual  bond  by  which  St.  Boniface 
had  united  the  German  peoples  was  broken,  then  Ger- 
man unity  and  the  greatness  of  the  German  nations 
were  at  an  end."  From  this  date  onward  to  1866  re- 
peated efforts  were  made  to  inflame  Catholics  against 
the  members  of  the  Reformed  Churches,  and  things 
were  published  which  were  calculated  to  enrage  one 
party  against  the  other.  Martin,  bishop  of  Paderhorn, 
in  his  pastoral,  1856,  affirmed  that  Protestants  were  in- 
capable of  being  honest.  Jorg,  in  his  extravagant  his- 
tory, represented  them  in  an  infamous  light.     But  worse 


480      CHKISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURV 

than  all,  in  1862,  Despiey,  bishop  of  Toulouse,  cele- 
brated with  great  pomp  the  tercentenary  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew and  the  base  assassination  of  four  thousand 
Protestants;  and  the  bishop  of  Trent  (1863),  commem- 
orating the  council  that  had  held  its  sessions  in  his  dio- 
cese, spoke  in  these  slaiiderous  terms  of  the  Reformers : 


After  Luther,  in  order  to  gratify  his  passions,  had  raised  the 
standard  of  rebellion  against  the  church  of  Christ,  the  most 
abandoned  men  in  all  Europe  flocked  around  him,  .  .  they 
trampled  the  blood  of  Christ  under  their  feet,  and  robbed  very 
many  souls  of  the  blessings  of  heaven  in  order  to  hurl  them  into 
the  abyss  of  hell. 

Such  language  could  only  have  one  result.  It  could  not 
fail  to  generate  bitter  feelings,  and  rouse  vindictive  pas- 
sions.     Schiller  inquires  : 

Who  knows  what  the  coming  hour 
Veiled  in  the  thick  darkness  brings  us  ? 

And  in  these  unwarranted  attacks,  and  in  the  machina- 
tions once  more  to  secure  the  ascendency  of  St.  Peter's 
throne  in  Germany,  there  lurked  the  dread  shadow  of 
devastating  war. 

It  took  on  itself  palpable  form  in  1866.  The  direct 
cause  which  brought  on  the  clash  of  arms  between 
Prussia  and  Austria  was  the  disagreement  which  had 
arisen  over  the  disposition  of  the  duchies  of  Schleswig, 
Holstein,  and  Lauenburg,  which  these  powers  had  torn 
from  Denmark,  and  to  which  neither  had  any  right. 
But  back  of  this  issue  there  lay  the  graver  question  of 
imperial  supremacy.  Each,  ambitious  for  the  primacy 
among  the  States  of  Germany,  was  apparently  ready  to 
measure  strength  over  this  minor  dispute,  and  they  were 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  48 1 

swept  by  the  rush  of  events  into  a  brief,  bloody,  and 
decisive  struggle.  On  the  third  of  July  the  battle  of 
Koniggratz,  or  Sadowa,  was  fought,  and  Prussia  was  vic- 
torious. The  success  which  crowned  her  arms  brought 
to  her  many  political  advantages,  and  to  her  ally,  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  the  possession  of  Venetia  and  the 
fortresses  of  the  quadrilateral.  This  was  a  step  of  im- 
portance toward  the  realization  of  those  dreams  which 
contemplated  nothing  short  of  the  overthrow  of  the 
pope's  temporal  power  in  the  land  where  it  had  so  long 
been  maintained.  Koniggratz,  while  not  fought  to  de- 
termine whether  Protestant  influence  was  to  be  para- 
mount, dispelled  the  fond  expectations  of  the  Ultramon- 
tane party.  The  reconstruction  of  the  German  Empire 
with  Austria  as  the  chief  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  with 
it  the  prospect  of  restoring  the  church  to  her  medieval 
rank  and  dignity. 

That  ecclesiastics  thus  understood  the  situation  was 
manifest  when,  in  1870,  the  Franco-Prussian  war  was 
waged,  for  a  Jesuit  at  Paderhorn  represented  it  as  a 
war  of  Protestants  against  Catholics.  Moreover,  the 
French  were  encouraged  to  expect  sympathy  from  the 
Ultramontanes  in  Germany,  and  assuredly  if  Napoleon 
had  conquered,  Protestant  as  well  as  political  Prussia 
would  have  been  humiliated  to  the  lowest  point.  Con- 
sequently, we  are  w^arranted  in  claiming  for  this  struggle 
a  religious  significance,  which,  although  unconfessed  by 
rulers  and  military  leaders,  is  none  the  less  apparent  in 
the  results.  For  not  only  is  the  restored  German  Em- 
pire essentially  Protestant,  but  the  Catholic  Church  has 
lost  her  temporal  possessions,  and  since  1870  a  very 
strong  current  has  been   making  for  triumph  of  evan- 

2F 


482      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

gelical  principles  on  the  continent.  Marias  of  this  cur- 
rent are  witnessed  in  the  abrogation  of  the  concordat  of 
1855  ;  in  the  subordination  of  the  hierarchy  in  Prussia 
to  a  minister  of  State  chosen  in  1871  ;  in  the  enactment 
that  German  priests  shall  go  through  the  curriculum  of 
a  German  university,  and  that  no  new  theological  sem- 
inaries shall  be  established  ;  in  the  penalties  imposed  on 
priests,  1874,  for  officiating  without  government  license; 
and  in  the  provisions  made  for  the  supervision  of  the 
religious  instruction  given  to  Roman  Catholic  children  ; 
to  which  must  be  added  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and 
other  secret  orders  from  the  empire  in  1872-73.  These 
and  other  measures  have  led  to  much  controversy,  and  to 
no  small  amount  of  diplomacy.  But  there  is  no  proba- 
bility that  these  barriers  against  papal  pretensions  will 
ever  be  swept  away.  They  will  stand.  And  they  will  al- 
ways recall  one  of  the  giant  events  of  modern  history,  in 
which  are  seen,  behind  policies  and  temporal  ambitions, 
the  old  battling  spirits  of  Reformer  and  Romanist  striv- 
ing for  pre-eminence,  and  to  this  extent  largely  deter- 
mining the  happenings,  small  and  great,  of  men  and  na- 
tions, and  fixing  the  trend  of  religious  thought  and  life 
possibly  for  the  next  hundred  years. 

In  the  public  affairs  of  no  country  has  Christianity 
borne  a  more  prominent  part  than  in  those  of  Italy;  but 
we  regret  to  add  that  it  has  not  always  been  of  the 
most  beneficial  character.  There  for  centuries  one 
special  type  of  common  faith  enjoyed  practically  undis- 
puted sway  ;  for  the  Waldensian  Church  was  doomed 
to  exile  from  the  business  of  the  world,  and  existed 
only  in  obscurity,  while  the  papal  autocracy  was  recog- 
nized  in    all   the   divided    States  of   Italy  as   supreme, 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  483 

However  dukes  and  princes  might  war  among  them- 
selves, and  however  they  might  substitute  one  ruler  for 
another,  they  agreed  in  rendering  spiritual  homage  to 
the  pontiff,  and  in  permitting  him  large  liberty  of  inter- 
ference in  civil  and  political  institutions  and  measures. 
Within  his  own  territories  he  was  chief  potentate  as 
well  as  chief  priest,  and  rarely  did  any  one  venture  to 
gainsay  him.  Within  these  territories,  and  particularly 
within  the  circle  of  the  Eternal  City,  the  unhappy  social 
chaos  that  prevailed  demonstrated  the  inadequacy  of 
such  an  ecclesiasticism  as  he  represented  to  promote 
the  real  purity  and  progress  of  society.  The  more  we 
become  familiar  with  the  failure  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  to  furnish  a  working  model  of  what  a  well-regu- 
lated municipality  should  be,  the  more  we  are  disposed 
to  adopt  the  dictum  of  Guizot  :  ''  Christianity  is  a  spir- 
itual force.  It  was  meant  to  work  as  a  hidden  leaven. 
It  was  not  not  meant  to  be  a  great  institution."  We 
are  not  holding  this  church  wholly  responsible  for  the 
divisions  between  various  geographical  limits  which 
conduced  to  a  chronic  condition  of  internecine  strife, 
and  which  encouraged  outsiders,  like  the  Austrians  and 
French,  to  usurp  authority  over  these  rival  States. 
And  yet  when  these  alienations  and  feuds  are  recalled, 
how  visionary  seems  the  promise  now  proclaimed  by  the 
Vatican  that  the  restoration  and  rehabilitation  of  the 
papacy  would  end  the  divisions  and  separations  which 
afflict  the  Christian  world.  If  its  influence  was  insuf- 
ficient to  preserve  the  unity  of  Italy,  how  can  it  hope 
to  succeed  in  harmonizing  the  clashing  interests  of  vast 
empires  and  mighty  denominations  .? 

But,  whatever  may  be  the  illusions  cherished  on  this 


484      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CI^NTURY 

point,  there  is  no  room  for  any  when  the  subject  of 
civic  administration  is  concerned.  Rome,  under  the 
later  popes,  was  a  wretched  city,  where  sanitation  was 
practically  disregarded,  where  a  free  press  was  impossi- 
ble, where  police  regulations  were  miserable,  and  where 
proi:)erty  and  life  were  continually  in  jeopardy.  No 
people  were  ever  more  misgoverned,  or  more  scorned 
and  ignored,  than  its  citizens.  These  neglects  of  duty 
to  the  community,  with  the  miscarriage  of  justice  and 
increase  of  taxes  inseparable  from  ignorant  or  vicious 
administration,  at  last  aroused  the  spirit  of  revolt,  and 
as  early  as  1831  agitations  on  behalf  of  a  free  Italy  and 
a  united  Italy  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
world. 

It  would  be  a  mortifying  confession  were  we  obliged 
to  concede  that  the  only  influence  of  Christianity  on  the 
succeeding  series  of  events,  which  terminated  with  the 
entrance  of  Victor  Emmanuel  into  Rome,  September 
20,  1870,  was  of  this  pernicious  kind,  driving  the  peo- 
ple to  seek  by  force  what  she  should  never  have  with- 
held from  them,  and  which  it  ought  to  have  been  her 
highest  honor  to  conserve.  While  we  are  not  obliged 
to  go  as  far  as  this,  nevertheless  I  am  prepared  to 
accept  the  logic  of  my  own  teachings.  Had  the 
church  been  faithful  to  the  ideals  of  Christ,  the  evil 
condition  into  which  Italy  was  brought  probably  would 
have  had  no  existence,  and  there  would  have  been  no 
necessity  for  Mazzini,  Cavour,  and  Garibaldi,  and  no 
place  for  heroic  sacrifices  and  patriotic  zeal.  But  as 
she  had  been  false  to  her  Lord,  she  had  helped  to  involve 
the  land  in  social  and  political  misery  ;  and  in  this  way, 
if  in   no   other,   she   brought   about  the  upheaval   and 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  485 

made  it  imperativ^e  for  Italy  to  seek  its  own  regeneration. 
Taking  only  this  partial  view,  it  is  manifest  that  the 
influence  of  the  church,  though  admittedly  an  influence 
not  to  her  credit,  was  conspicuously  operative  in  the 
revolutionary  history  of  Italy  from  the  times  of  the 
Carbonari  societies  to  the  fall  of  Napoleon  III. 

But  much  more  than  this  must  be  be  allowed.  In  a 
different  and  better  sense  Christianity  became  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  liberation  of  the  Italian  people. 
Even  Pius  IX.  must  be  credited  with  certain  enlightened 
reforms  which  tended  in  this  direction.  These  were 
the  measures  which  distinguished  the  earlier  days  of  his 
pontificate.  When  he  was  elected  to  succeed  Gregory 
XVI.,  who  passed  away  in  1846,  after  having  excited 
the  citizens  of  Rome  to  the  fever  point  of  insurrection 
by  his  vicious  administration,  he  proclaimed  himself  a 
liberal.  The  whole  of  Europe  was  startled  by  this 
phenomenon, — a  reforming  pope, — and  statesmen  and 
monarchs  realized  that  this  example  would  encourage 
popular  demands.  Of  the  significance  of  this  strange 
ecclesiastical  spectacle  Thomas  Carlyle  wrote  in  1850, 
and  his  words  are  worth  recalling : 

A  simple,  pious  creature,  a  good  country  priest,  invested  unex- 
pectedly with  the  tiara,  takes  up  the  New  Testament,  declares  that 
this  henceforth  shall  be  his  rule  of  government.  No  moxQjiHesse, 
chicanery,  hypocrisy,  or  false  or  foul  dealing  of  any  kind  ;  God's 
truth  shall  be  spoken,  God's  justice  shall  be  done,  on  the  throne 
called  of  St.  Peter  :  an  honest  pope,  papa,  or  father  of  Christendom, 
shall  preside  there.  .  .  The  European  populations  everywhere 
hailed  the  omen,  with  shouting  and  rejoicing,  leading  articles, 
and  tar  barrels  ;  thinking  people  listened  with  astonishment— not 
with  sorrow  if  they  were  faithful  or  wise,  with  awe  rather,  as  at 
the  heralding  of  death,  and  with  a  joy  as  of  victory  beyond  death  ! 


486      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Something  pious,  grand,  and  as  if  awful  in  that  joy,  revealing  once 
more  the  presence  of  a  Divine  justice  in  this  world.  For,  to  such 
men  it  was  very  clear  how  this  poor  devoted  pope  would  prosper, 
with  his  New  Testament  in  his  hand.  An  alarming  business,  that 
of  governing  in  the  throne  of  St.  Peter  by  the  rule  of  veracity  ! 
By  the  rule  of  veracity,  the  so-called  throne  of  St.  Peter  was  openly 
declared,  abo\e  three  hundred  years  ago,  to  be  a  falsity,  a  huge 
mistake,  a  pestilent  dead  carcass  which  this  sun  was  weary  of.  .  . 
Law  of  veracity  ?  What  this  popedom  had  to  do  by  the  law  of 
veracity,  was  to  give  up  its  own  foul,  galvanic  life,  an  offense  to 
gods  and  men  ;  honestly  to  die  and  get  itself  buried.  ^ 

Well,  though  the  good  pope  did  not  follow  Carlyle's 
stern  injunction  and  bury  his  office,  he  did  the  next 
best  thing,  he  tried  to  animate  it  with  the  spirit  of  the 
gospel.  He  inaugurated  a  better  government  in  his 
own  dominions.  He  liberated  political  prisoners  and 
began  to  form  a  constitution.  Italy  was  thrilled  with 
joy  and  gratitude.  Constitutions  were  granted  in  Tus- 
cany and  Piedmont ;  and  where  they  were  withheld 
hostile  demonstrations  followed,  Palermo  rising  against 
King  Ferdinand  and  Naples  joining  with  her,  and  the 
Milanese  demanding  an  extension  of  liberty  from  the 
Austrians.  This  last  appeal  was,  however,  answered 
by  force,  the  citizens  being  massacred  by  the  Austrian 
soldiery,  and  occasioning  widespread  lamentation  and 
indignation.  These  instances,  not  to  mention  others, 
indicate  the  beneficial  influence  of  the  papacy  in  its 
reforming  mood,  and  had  it  only  continued,  to  this  saga- 
cious and  benign  statesmanship  would  have  been  attrib- 
uted the  subsequent  regeneration  of  Italy.  But  unhap- 
pily it  came  to  an  end.  Pius  IX.  soon  discovered  what 
an  "  alarming  business  "  he  had  undertaken,  perceived 

1  "Latter  Day  Pamphlets,"  No.  i. 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  48/ 

that  the  papacy  and  veracity  had  nothing  in  common, 
and  adopted  reactionary  ways.  Still,  the  effect  of  his 
example,  when  at  his  best,  could  not  be  lost.  It  afforded 
the  people  a  momentary  glimpse  of  what  Christianity 
really  contemplated  and  authorized,  and  what  their  politi- 
cal and  personal  rights  were  according  to  its  teachings. 
For  a  moment  they  had  been  permitted  to  see  that 
their  aspirations  were  fully  warranted  by  the  Faith  they 
cherished.  The  picture  might  be  withdrawn  from  view, 
but  the  impression  it  had  made  could  never  be  effaced. 
Henceforward,  they  would  act  in  harmony  with  the 
gracious  vision,  and  yielding  to  its  charm  they  pressed 
forward  to  those  heroic  achievements  which  crowned 
Italy  with  glory  and  independence. 

The  three  great  leaders  in  these  achievements  were 
Mazzini,  a  native  of  Genoa,  Garibaldi,  a  citizen  of  Nice, 
and  Cavour,  who  was  born  among  the  conservative  aris- 
tocrats of  Piedmont.  The  first  has  been  called  "  the 
prophet  "  of  the  awakening;  the  second,  its  soldier;  and 
the  third,  its  statesman.  While  they  embodied  much 
of  the  New  Testament  spirit,  how  far  they  were  them- 
selves directly  inspired  by  its  ideals  is  an  open  question. 
When  Count  Cavour  with  his  dying  breath  uttered  the 
memorable  words,  "a  free  Church  in  a  free  State,"  he 
left  behind  a  witness  to  the  real  source  of  his  devotion. 
If,  as  has  been  alleged,  Garibaldi  in  his  revolt  from  the 
abuses  connected  with  the  hierarchy  had  drifted  into 
free  thought,  it  would  seem  that  the  statesman,  thinking 
more  profoundly  than  he,  had  come  under  the  influence 
of  Christ,  the  world's  greatest  teacher.  Of  Mazzini  no 
other  adequate  explanation  can  be  given  than  that  he 
also  had  caught  something  of  the  spirit  of  the  Master. 


488      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

His  addresses  and  appeals  are  distinguished  by  a  certain 
religious  tone  and  by  a  devout  quality,  which  separate 
him  from  the  rude  scoffers  of  his  age.      He  exclaims  : 

God  exists  because  we  exist.  God  lives  in  our  conscience,  in 
the  conscience  of  humanity.  For  conscience  invokes  him  in  our 
most  solemn  moments  of  grief  or  joy.  .  .  He  who  can  deny  God 
either  in  the  face  of  a  starlight  night  ;  when  standing  beside  the 
tomb  of  those  dearest  to  him,  or  in  the  presence  of  martyrdom, 
is  either  greatly  unhappy,  or  greaUy  guilty.  .  .  Perhaps  the  first 
atheist  was  a  tyrant,  who,  having  destroyed  one-half  of  the  soul  of 
his  brethren  by  depriving  them  of  liberty,  endeavored  to  substi- 
tute the  worship  of  brute  force  for  faith  in  duty  and  eternal 
right. 

In  another  discourse  he  says  : 

Foremost  and  grandest  amid  the  teachings  of  Christ  were  these 
two  inscDarable  truths  :  There  is  but  one  God ;  all  men  are  the 
sons  of  God ;  and  the  promulgation  of  these  two  truths  changed 
the  face  of  the  world  and  enlarged  the  moral  circle  to  the  confines 
of  the  world.  ^ 

But  without  quoting  further,  we  perceive  from  these 
citations,  that  this  reformer,  as  well  as  Cavour,  derived 
his  inspiration  from  the  deep  wells  of  Christianity,  ''pure 
and  undefiled."  Some  of  his  specific  teachings  may  be 
open  to  criticism  when  tested  by  the  letter  of  God's 
word,  but  there  hardly  can  be  any  doubt  that  his  soul 
had  been  illumined  by  the  light  of  truth  which  had 
streamed  on  the  world,  through  prophets  and  apostles, 
from  the  ''great  white  throne." 

Nor  should  it  be  overlooked  that  there  were  in  Italy 
other  Christians  than  those  which  professed  allegiance 
to  the  papacy,   and  that   they  for  centuries   had   been 

1  "Memoir,  Joseph  Mazzini, "  pp.  280,  287. 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  489 

quietly  circulating  a  gospel  fatal  to  tyranny,  whether 
ecclesiastical  or  political.  The  revolution  of  1848  opened 
the  gates  of  the  Waldensian  valleys,  and  brought  into 
notice  the  representatives  of  that  church  which  Paul 
had  founded  in  Rome,  and  which  had  existed  in  obscurity 
through  the  ages,  and  which  had  only  occasionally  been 
remembered  by  their  sufferings,  and  by  the  majestic  ap- 
peal of  Milton  : 

Avenge,  O  Lord,  thy  slaughtered  saints  ;  .   . 

,    .    .    their  martyred  blood  and  ashes  sow 

O'er  all  the  Italian  fields.    .    . 

.    .    .    that  from  these  may  grow 

A  hundred-fold. 

Charles  Albert,  in  the  constitution  of  1848,  freed  the 
Waldensian  Church  from  all  her  disabilities,  and  secured 
to  her  immunity  from  persecution,  and  after  the  auda- 
cious campaign  of  Garibaldi,  in  1859,  the  peninsula,  with 
the  exception  of  one  spot,  where  still  "the  triple  tyrant " 
held  sway,  was  open  to  her  missionary  labors.  She  felt 
the  thrill  of  the  new  responsibility,  and  delivering  her 
message,  though  she  may  have  abstained  from  political 
discussion,  necessarily  trained  the  people  for  the  final 
victory  that  was  to  crown  their  persistent  endeavors 
eleven  years  later.  But  who  can  tell  how  far  this  long- 
suffering  church,  hidden  from  the  eyes  of  the  world, 
sowed  the  seeds  of  national  regeneration  when  pursuing 
her  ordinary  ministrations  .''  If  the  gospel  itself  is  a 
social  dynamic,  she  could  not  have  preached  it,  however 
prudently  and  quietly,  without  preparing  the  way  for  the 
ultimate  upheaval.  I,  therefore,  venture  to  trace  to  her 
teachings  and  devotion  a  large  part  of  those  primary 
aspirations  which  roused  Italy  from  its  lethargy  and  won 


490      CHRISTIAMTV    IX    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

for  it  a  position  of  honor  among  the  nations.  When 
Victor  Emmanuel  entered  Rome,  in  1870,  it  is  reported 
that  a  VValdensian  pastor  marched  in  the  procession 
with  a  large  open  Bible  before  him  on  a  cushion.  His 
presence  in  the  midst  of  the  army,  bearing  the  divine 
word,  was  symbolic  and  significant.  It  was  an  explicit 
recognition  of  the  influence  of  Christianity  in  all  that 
had  taken  place  ;  it  reminded  the  world  that  the  cause 
of  freedom  had  been  promoted  by  Bible-loving  Protes- 
tants in  England  ;  and  it  proclaimed  in  the  most  con- 
vincing manner  that  the  religion  of  our  Lord  was  still 
the  mightiest  force  in  giving  direction  and  character  to 
the  history  of  mankind. 

Of  this,  additional  proof  has  been  furnished  in  the  last 
days  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  interposition  of 
the  United  States  on  behalf  of  despoiled  and  despairing 
Cuba.  The  war  against  Spain  was  not  in  its  origin 
either  political  or  commercial.  It  was  evolved,  and  that 
too  without  premeditation  or  desire,  from  the  tempest  of 
moral  indignation  which  the  barbarities  inflicted  on  a 
humble  people  struggling  for  freedom  wrought  in  the 
soul  of  a  nation  whose  most  sacred  traditions  are  inti- 
mately allied  with  the  gospel  of  Christ.  It  would  be 
misleading  to  represent  the  pulpit  as  fomenting  strife, 
or  as  invoking  violence.  Doubtless  a  few  clergymen 
saw  that  the  appeal  to  the  sword  would  be  inevitable, 
and  expressed  their  convictions  clearly.  But  neither 
they  nor  others  courted  war.  They  realized,  however, 
that  there  was  something  worse  than  a  sharp,  short, 
military  campaign — the  prolonged  anguish  and  agony  of 
men,  women,  and  children,  tending  surely  toward  exter- 
mination ;  and  when  no  other  alternative  was  left,  they 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  49 1 

joined  in  calling  on  the  government  to  eject  the  op- 
pressor from  an  island  he  was  devastating.  When  dip- 
lomatic relations  were  broken  with  Spain,  the  adminis- 
tration at  Washington  solemnly  assured  the  w^orld  that 
it  was  moved  by  no  ambitious  schemes  of  conquest,  but 
only  by  the  most  benevolent  considerations.  It  claimed 
to  be  the  mouthpiece  and  the  executive  of  the  outraged 
Christian  sentiment  of  the  land,  which  demanded  that 
it  should  champion  human  rights  and  humanity  against 
usurpation  and  savagery.  And  there  can  be  little,  if 
any,  doubt  that  the  authorities  interpreted  aright  the 
national  will.  They  would  have  been  generally  con- 
demned had  they  taken  up  arms  for  the  extension  of 
empire,  for  the  territorial  enlargement  of  the  republic, 
or  for  any  other  selfish  and  vainglorious  object.  But 
when  they  mobilized  armies  and  fleets  in  the  name  of 
philanthropy,  and  assured  the  world  that  only  the  spirit 
of  chivalry  was  being  evoked,  they  were  sustained  and 
commended  by  the  adherents  of  all  parties.  Up  to  this 
point  the  direct  influence  of  Christianity  is  plainly  vis- 
ible, as  it  likewise  was  in  the  conduct  of  the  war ;  for 
from  the  first  to  last  the  officers  and  men,  both  of  the 
army  and  navy,  in  their  relations  wdth  the  enemy  never 
forgot  that  they  represented  its  generous  and  enlight- 
ened civilization. 

What  the  final  outcome  of  Spain's  humiliation  is  to 
be,  it  is  difficult  now  to  foresee.  The  Philippines  and 
Porto  Rico,  as  well  as  Cuba,  have  come  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States.  Whether  Christianity 
will  be  as  effective  in  the  regulation  of  their  affairs  and 
in  the  determination  of  their  political  status,  as  it  was 
in   their  deliverance,  is   at   present   involved   in    uncer- 


49^      CllKlSriAxMTV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

taiiity.  The  indications,  however,  are  not  altogether 
reassuring.  The  impression  made  by  some  recent  ut- 
terances is  that  our  chief  business  with  dependencies  is 
to  exploit  them  in  the  interest  of  our  own  land ;  that  is, 
as  it  will  prove,  in  the  interest  of  certain  capitalistic  com- 
binations. What  an  ignominious  change  from  the  lofty 
motives  proclaimed  when  our  brave  soldiers  took  the 
field,  to  the  sordid  and  selfish  scheming  of  public  men 
who  are  anxious  to  multiply  the  national  revenues,  even 
though  the  integrity  of  the  national  constitution  is  jeop- 
ardized, and  the  national  pledges  solemnly  given  to  the 
weak  and  helpless  are  repudiated  and  dishonored.  If 
this  trend  is  to  be  arrested,  and  if  the  preservation  of  the 
principles  and  institutions  of  the  United  States  is  to  be 
prized  above  the  retention  of  a  dozen  archipelagos,  and 
if  we  are  to  make  our  occupation  of  other  lands  a  bless- 
ing and  not  a  curse,  then  must  all  good  citizens  speak 
out,  and  especially  must  all  good  Christians  plead  with 
those  in  power  that  the  well-being  of  the  governed,  and 
not  the  financial  advantage  of  those  who  govern,  be 
made  their  chief  concern.  It.  is  not  for  the  church,  as 
such,  to  pronounce  on  the  constitutional  questions  in- 
volved in  the  acquisition  of  distant  territories.  This  is 
entirely  outside  her  domain.  But  it  is  her  privilege, 
and  lies  within  her  province,  to  protest  against  such  an 
interpretation  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  as 
fell  from  the  lips  of  a  United  States  senator,  by  which 
the  colored  races  are  deprived  of  equal  recognition 
with  the  white  in  its  famous  summary  of  the  rights 
of  man.  Nor  can  she  be  neutral  or  indifferent  to  any 
policy  which  overrides  constitutional  provisions  and 
guarantees,  without    abandoning    the    cause  of    human 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  493 

progress.  Neither  can  she  be  thus  guilty  without  jeop- 
ardizing her  own  safety.  For  if  one  portion  of  the 
highest  law  of  the  land  can  with  impunity  be  set  aside 
in  the  interest  of  national  revenues  and  protected  in- 
dustries, then  why  not  another,  and  why  not  that 
enactment  which  secures  to  the  church  herself  free- 
dom to  preach  the  gospel  and  worship  God  ?  Her  own 
independence  and  dignity  are  involved  in  the  discussions 
which  are  now  taking  place  in  political  circles.  She 
must  be  true  to  her  mission.  Without  venturing  opinions 
on  technical  questions  which  only  the  Supreme  Court 
can  determine,  she  is  bound  by  her  character  and  offices 
to  protest  against  every  form  of  serfdom,  however  mild  ; 
to  insist  that  whether  ''  trade  follows  the  flag  "  or  not, 
liberty,  justice,  equality,  honor,  and  honesty  shall  and 
must ;  and  to  demand  that  no  favoritism  or  partial  legis- 
lation shall  give  free  course  to  any  traffic  to  brutalize 
a  dependent  people  and  hinder  the  beneficent  ministra- 
tions of  religion  and  education. 

A  final  illustration  of  the  influence  we  have  been 
tracing  has  been  furnished  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury in  the  wonderful  power  of  Christian  missions  over 
heathen  nations  and  savage  tribes,  modifying  the  civili- 
zation of  the  former  and  beginning  the  civilization  of 
the  latter,  and  determining  in  a  remarkable  degree  the 
history  of  both.  When  our  eyes  are  turned  toward 
India,  China,  Japan,  Africa,  and  the  islands  of  the  sea, 
we  seem  to  be  witnessing  a  recurrence  of  those  vic- 
torious days  two  thousand  years  ago  when  Christianity 
went  forth  to  convert  an  empire,  and  to  bring  barbarian 
tribes  within  the  scope  of  gospel  ministrations.  In  the 
opening  section  of  this  volume  we  saw  Christianity  once 


494      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    xMXETEENTH    CENTURY 

more  girding  herself  for  world-wide  conquests.  A  lit- 
tle over  a  hundred  years  ago,  it  may  be  said,  this  latest 
demonstration  against  the  blackness  and  infamy  of 
earth  commenced.  William  Carey  sailed  from  England 
for  India  in  June,  1793.  That  was  the  humble  and  un- 
promising beginning.  With  what  contempt  does  Sidney 
Smith  and  his  cynical  class  contemplate  this  venture  of 
a  ''  consecrated  cobbler."  And  yet  his  departure  marked 
the  beginning  of  a  movement  which  was  in  coming  time, 
not  only  to  affect  the  religions  of  the  East,  but  to  exert 
a  decisive  influence  on  social  and  political  affairs.  Of 
the  evangelistic  results  of  this  endeavor  once  more  to 
carry  out  the  commission  given  by  Christ  to  his  dis- 
ciples, we  can  form  some  idea  from  a  summary  pub- 
lished within  the  last  few  months  by  Rev.  E.  E.  Strong, 
D.  D.,  editor  of  the  "  Missionary  Herald  "  : 

The  missionary  societies  of  the  United  States  have  in  foreign 
lands  1,067  stations,  5,776  outstations,  1,383  male  missionaries, 
2,095  female  missionaries,  17,300  native  laborers,  402,507  com- 
municants, 237,487  pupils  under  instruction.  The  income  of 
these  societies  for  the  current  year  has  been  $4,710,430.  The 
missionary  societies  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  of  Great 
Britain  and  continental  Europe,  of  Asia,  Australia,  and  Africa, 
are  represented  in  5,217  stations  and  13,586  outstations.  To- 
gether these  employ  6, 364  male  missionaries,  6, 282  female  mission- 
aries, 61,897  native  laborers.  There  are  1,585,121  communi- 
cants in  their  churches,  685,849  pupils  under  instruction,  and 
their  iq^ome  for  the  last  year  has  been  115,360,693. 

And  these  statistics,  dry  as  they  may  seem  to  some 
people,  but  eloquent  to  others,  may  well  be  supple- 
mented by  what  has  been  done  since  the  year  1800  to 
give  the  Scriptures  to  the  world.  Their  circulation 
may  be  taken  as  an   indication  of  the  progress  attained 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  495 

by  the  religion  of  Christ  ;  for  wherever  it  extends  its 
borders  there  must  the  truth  be  published  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  people.  Encouraging,  therefore,  are  these 
statements  culled  from  "  Leslie's  Weekly  "  : 

According  to  trustworthy  estimates,  some  280,000,000  copies 
have  been  published  and  disposed  of  during  that  period  by  the 
Bible  societies  alone  ;  and,  if  all  printed  copies  were  to  be  in- 
cluded, it  is  probable  that  the  number  would  not  be  less  than 
half  a  billion.  .  .  Two  Bible  societies  stand  far  above  all  others 
in  the  gross  amount  of  their  circulation — the  British  and  P'oreign 
Bible  Society,  whose  output  during  the  century  has  reached  a 
total  of  160,000,000,  and  our  "own  American  Bible  Society, 
which  issued  last  year  1,380,892  volumes,  and  in  all,  since  its 
foundation,  66,000,000  volumes.  Where  has  this  vast  army  of 
books  gone,  and  how  did  they  reach  their  destination  ?  It  has 
taken  a  regiment  of  skilled  laborers  to  accomplish  it — porters  and 
carriers,  or  colporters  as  they  are  technically  called,  carefully 
marshaled  and  organized  under  a  staff  of  experienced  officers  in 
marly  countries  all  over  the  world,  and  employing  every  mode  of 
transportation  known  to  mankind  to  carry  the  book  across  seas 
and  continents,  so  that  it  may  reach  not  only  great  nations  in 
China  and  India,  but  even  those  unknown  and  barbarous  tribes 
who  have  no  literature  until  this,  the  finest  literature  of  the  world, 
is  thus  brought  to  them.  Already  the  agents  of  the  American  and 
of  the  British  foreign  societies  are  beginning  work  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  .  .  The  Zulu  Bible  published  by  the  American  Bible 
Society,  is  a  factor  in  South  African  affairs  larger  and  more  influential 
than  many  more  conspicuous  in  international  politics.  Whatever 
happens  in  the  Transvaal,  it  will  not  cease  to  do  its  silent  work.  On 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  Bible  translation  has  been  proceeding  for 
half  a  century,  and  the  sheets  of  the  Benga  Bible,  intelligible  not 
only  to  that  tribe,  but  to  a  cluster  of  rude  tribes  dwelling  on  that 
far-off  coast,  have  been  passing  through  the  press  of  the  society 
in  New  York,  and  when  finished  sent  on  their  voyage  to  the  Ga- 
boon and  Corisco  Mission.  Though  numerically  less,  not  less  in- 
teresting is  the  circulation  of  the  Bible  among  our  own  aborigines. 


496      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Only  lately  a  grateful  letter  came  in  acknowledgment  of  a  con- 
signment of  Bibles  for  use  among  the  full-blooded  Choctaws,  who 
number  12,000.  Choctaw  and  Cherokee,  Mohawk  and  Dakota, 
Arrawack  and  Ojibwa,  Seneca  and  Muskokee — what  a  polyglot 
undertaking  it  is  to  reach  all  these  !  Yet  they  are  reached  in  one 
way  and  another. 

Stimulating  as  are  these  reports,  they  do  not  begin 
to  express,  and  no  figures  can,  the  happy  effect  the  gos- 
pel has  had  on  the  lives  of  the  unhappy  peoples  to  whom 
it  has  come  as  a  messenger  of  hope,  both  for  time  and 
eternity.  Nor  do  they  suggest  the  mighty  hosts  among 
the  native  populations  of  heathen  lands  that  have  not 
yet  professed,  but  who  are  favorably  inclined  toward 
the  religion  of  Christ.  Some  things  can  hardly  be  cata- 
logued and  numbered,  and  among  these  are  the  new 
feeling  of  kindness,  the  new  respect  for  wife  and  chil- 
dren, the  new  desire  for  enlightenment,  and  the  new 
endeavors  to  acquire  the  arts  of  civilization  which  have 
been  born  of  this  (to  the  refined  pagan  and  cruel  sav- 
age) singular  faith,  that  is  not  satisfied  with  merely  tak- 
ing people  out  of  this  world  to  live  in  a  better  one,  but 
is  intent  also  on  making  this  one  much  better,  in  which 
they  and  future  generations  can  live  peacefully  and  joy- 
ously. A  veritable  transformation  of  the  most  momen- 
tous character  is  going  on  at  this  moment  in  various 
portions  of  the  globe.  Ancient  nations  are  in  the  earlier 
throes  of  a  new  birth,  and  wild  and  warlike  tribes  that 
heretofore  have  never  combined  and  have  never  dreamed 
of  orderly  government,  are  now  feeling  their  way  toward 
something  like  national  unity  and  development.  As  the 
origin  of  the  different  States  which  make  up  the  king- 
doms of  modern   Europe  from  the  territory  of  the  dis- 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  497 

membered  Roman  Empire  constitutes  one  of  the  most 
significant  of  historical  events,  and  proved  proHfic  in 
historical  complications  and  crises,  so  that  which  is  tak- 
ing place  to-day  is  equally  momentous,  is  as  truly  and 
as  portentously  historical,  and  will  make  as  fully  for 
historical  struggles  and  achievements.  And  every  one 
who  has  taken  pains  to  inform  himself  on  this  subject 
knows,  whatever  other  agencies  have  entered  in,  that 
Christianity  is  in  the  highest  sense  the  inspiration  of 
this  quickening  of  old  nations  and  birth  of  new  ones. 

Within  our  present  circumscribed  space  we  can 
bestow  only  a  cursory  glance  on  what  is  in  many  re- 
spects the  most  interesting  movement  of  modern  times. 
We  must  deny  ourselves  the  pleasure  of  considering  the 
heroic  story  of  John  Williams  (i 8 17-1839),  as  he  pur- 
sued his  way  from  Eimeo  to  the  disastrous  shores  of 
Eromanga,  preaching  and  praying,  until  everywhere 
within  ten  thousand  miles  of  Tahiti,  including  Aitutaki, 
Atu,  Rarotonga,  and  Samoa,  the  gospel  achieved  the 
most  remarkable  successes.  These  islands  have  been 
wonderfully  blessed,  and  have  already  been  drawn  into 
the  political  life  of  the  world.  Their  influence  in  that 
relationship  admittedly  is  as  yet  very  slight.  Neverthe- 
less it  is  being  felt,  and  it  is  growing.  And  when  we 
join  to  them  the  Philippines  on  the  eastern  extremity 
and  Hawaii  on  the  western,  then  the  whole  of  Polynesia, 
employing  that  term  in  its  widest  sense,  very  likely  will 
acquire  a  significance  in  the  immediate  future  which  we 
can  hardly  appreciate  at  present.  Indeed,  there  are 
not  lacking  signs  that  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines  are 
already  looming  up  as  important  factors  in  the  world's 
commerce  and  civilization. 

2G 


49S      CHRISTIANITY    IX    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

What  these  islands  are  to-day,  what  they  are  in  their 
preparation  for  autonomous  existence  and  self-govern- 
ment, is  due  mainly  and  primarily  to  the  labors  of  de- 
voted missionaries.  To  the  Catholics  was  given  the 
East,  to  the  Protestants,  the  West.  Soon  after  Ma- 
gellan discovered  the  archipelago  (1521),  the  Augustin- 
ian  Friars  began  their  ministry  in  the  Philippines  (i  565), 
and  were  followed  by  the  P>anciscans  (1577),  and  these 
and  other  religious  orders,  aided  Philip  of  Spain  in 
bringing  the  natives  under  the  yoke  with  as  little  blood- 
shed as  possible  ;  as  little  as  possible,  for  the  natives 
were  not  ready  tamely  to  submit  at  the  beginning,  as 
they  have  not  been,  and  are  not  now,  willing  to  remain 
passively  obedient  to  those  who  deprive  them  of  inde- 
pendence. In  the  west  Protestants  were  instrumental 
in  rescuing  the  Hawaiians  from  their  degrading  super- 
stitions, and  from  the  terrible  fascination  of  the 
bloody  altars  on  w^hich  they  had  for  ages  offered  human 
sacrifices.  It  ought,  however,  to  be  stated  that  the 
beginnings  of  this  deliverance  antedated  the  arrival  of 
the  missionaries,  for  two  months  before  Kamehameha 
I.  died  he  was  moved  by  a  mysterious  influence  and 
forbade  the  further  observance  of  these  sanguinary 
rites.  The  missionaries  landed  March  31,  1820,  and 
within  six  years  several  chiefs  had  embraced  Chris- 
tianity, among  them  the  Regent  Kaanumanu,  and 
twenty-five  thousand  pupils  were  gathered  in  Christian 
schools.  So  rapid  was  the  progress  made,  that  the 
apostolic  age  seemed  to  have  revived,  and  these  distant 
islands  were  held  up  before  the  church  as  an  evidence 
of  what  the  gospel  could  do  in  saving  the  nations. 
Critics    have  not  been   slow    in   pointing  out   that    all 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  499 

the  natives  have  not  been  converted,  and  that  all  the 
converted  are  not  perfect ;  an  unhappy  fact,  as  true, 
however,  of  America  and  England  as  of  Hawaii.  But 
such  critics  are  not  mindful  to  add  that  the  beneficial 
results  of  missions  are  frequently  restricted,  and  some- 
times counteracted,  by  the  mercenary  and  contempti- 
ble trade  spirit,  which  does  not  hesitate  to  debase  and 
pollute  a  race  just  entering  on  civilization  through  the 
use  of  strong  drink. 

In  heathen  lands,  as  in  lands  where  the  church  is 
honored,  the  virtues  of  Christianity  have  to  struggle  for 
existence  against  the  vices  of  civilization,  and  sometimes 
seem  to  disappear  for  a  season  in  their  ooze  and  filth. 
But  a  people  even  partially  Christianized,  after  a  while 
can  hardly  fail  to  develop  certain  industries,  and  thus 
render  their  country  of  some  commercial  value.  In 
this  way,  while  the  new  faith  is  exposed  to  unexpected 
perils,  the  country  itself  may  excite  the  cupidity  of  its 
stronger  neighbors,  or  on  account  of  its  strategic  im- 
portance may  fall  a  prey  to  alien  governments.  Thus, 
against  their  will,  these  reclaimed  regions  may  become 
the  center  of  political  combinations  and  the  occasion  of 
serious  conflicts.  And  as  the  nineteenth  century  was 
drawing  to  its  close,  both  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines, 
through  some  such  means,  emerged  from  previous 
obscurity.  They  have  given  rise  to  armed  demon- 
strations, to  the  humiliation  of  nations  and  parties  and 
to  the  elevation  of  others,  to  political  maneuvering, 
and  to  the  most  audacious  and  unscrupulous  statecraft. 
Up  to  the  present,  and  whether  ultimately  for  weal  or 
woe,  they  have  been  made  the  victims  of  conmiercial 
rapacity   and  greed,   which    have    invoked    the    sacred 


500      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

names  of  liberty,  benevolence,  and  religion  to  hide  or 
extenuate  their  nefarious  machinations.  The  extent  of 
these,  at  least  as  far  as  the  Philippines  are  concerned, 
and  the  shameful  degradation  and  misery  they  entail, 
are  coarsely  acknowledged  in  the  following  congratula- 
tory item  addressed  to  the  trade  by  the  *'  Wine  and 
Spirit  News  "  : 

As  one  result  of  American  occupancy  of  Manila  the  liquor  busi- 
ness has  reached  enterprising  proportions,  and  is  now  considered 
as  one  of  the  leading,  as  well  as  one  of  the  respectable,  kinds  of 
business.  Says  one  correspondent  :  "  On  the  Escolta,  the  princi- 
pal street,  only  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  there  were  but  two  places 
where  intoxicating  liquors  were  sold  when  we  entered  the  city, 
whereas  now  there  are  eighteen.  There  are  three  hundred  licensed 
places  in  the  city  where  liquors  may  be  obtained,  licenses  costing 
three  dollars  per  year.  The  income  of  the  largest,  the  Alhambra,  is 
stated  on  good  authority  to  be  seven  hundred  dollars  per  night. 
Already  the  street  cars  are  topped  with  large  signs  detailing  the 
exquisite  qualities  of  certain  whiskies.  One  quarter  of  the  daily 
issue  of  the  principal  English  newspaper  published  is  devoted 
to  extolling  the  perfection  of  a  brand  of  beer,  while  the  largest 
drugstore  in  town  devotes  a  whole  column  to  advertising  its  fine 
line  of  liquors,  with  no  mention  of  its  medicines." 

This  is  "benevolent  assimilation"  with  a  vengeance. 
And  the  end  is  not  yet.  But  however  it  may  terminate, 
these  distant  regions  have  been  making  recent  history, 
and  doubtless  in  the  future,  through  the  influence  of 
the  gospel  they  have  embraced,  they  will  come  into 
still  greater  prominence,  and,  as  we  hope,  may  in  some 
measure  serve  the  cause  of  human  emancipation  and 
civilization  everywhere. 

Africa  is  another  of  those  countries  where  Christi- 
anity has  been  laying  the  foundation  of  civil  order,  and, 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  5OI 

as  we  believe,  of  future  commonwealths.  Henry  M. 
Stanley  wrote  in  the  "  Century  Magazine,"  a  few  years 
ago  that  "fully  three  hundred  missionaries"  had  en- 
tered the  Dark  Continent  since  1877,  and  that  their 
labors  had  been  most  fruitful.      He  adds  : 

In  Uganda  alone  there  are  two  hundred  churches  and  fifty 
thousand  Christians.  One  has  but  to  glance  at  the  latest  map  of 
Africa  to  be  convinced  of  the  zeal,  devotion,  and  industry  of  the 
missionaries.  Mission  houses  do  not  grow  of  themselves.  Gos- 
pels are  not  translated  into  African  tongues,  nor  are  converts  spon- 
taneous products  of  human  nature.  I  am  somewhat  familiar  with 
African  facts,  and  to  me  these  things  represent  immense  labor, 
patience,  and  self-sacrifice. 

And  referring  in  another  communication  to  the  vigor 
and  virility  manifested  by  a  tribe  that  had  accepted 
Christ  in  opposition  to  a  cruel  and  savage  ruler,  he 
bears  this  splendid  testimony  : 

I  take  this  powerful  body  of  native  Christians  in  the  heart  of 
Africa,  who  prefer  exile  for  the  sake  of  their  faith  to  serving  a 
monarch  indifferent  or  hostile  to  their  faith,  as  more  substantial 
evidence  of  the  work  of  Mackay  than  any  number  of  imposing 
structures  clustered  together  and  called  a  mission  station  would 
be.  These  native  Africans  have  endured  the  most  deadly  perse- 
cutions— the  stake  and  the  fire,  the  cord  and  the  club,  the  sharp 
knife  and  the  rifle  bullet  have  all  been  tried  to  cause  them  to  re- 
ject the  teachings  they  have  absorbed.  Stanch  in  their  beliefs, 
firm  in  their  convictions,  they  have  held  together  stoutly  and  reso- 
lutely, and  Mackay  and  Ashe  may  point  to  these  with  a  righteous 
pride  as  the  results  of  their  labors  to  the  good,  kindly  people  at 
home  who  trusted  in  them. 

Here  then  we  have  the  proof  that  the  religion  of  our 
Lord  is  still  as  potent  in  developing  manhood  as  in  the 
early  days  when  the  Roman  slave  and  the  poor  work- 


50J      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

men  from  the  sandpits  dared  defy  the  persecuting  im- 
perialism of  Rome.  And  it  may  be,  and  I  dare  predict 
it  will  be,  unless  the  spiritual  forces  are  neutralized  by 
the  greed  and  vices  of  Western  civilization,  that  in  these 
regions  where  hitherto  ignorance,  superstition,  and  piti- 
less torUire  have  held  sway,  Christianity  will  succeed  in 
building  up  an  empire  the  peer  of  some  that  now  exist, 
and  an  honor  to  the  many  heroic  lives  that  have  already 
been  sacrificed  on  its  behalf,  and  especially  to  the  name 
of  Livingstone,  whose  heart  lies  buried  beneath  a  Moula 
tree,  and  who,  as  Blaikie  suggested,  may  fittingly  be 
called  Africajuis,  after  the  custom  of  the  Romans. 

Yokoi,  a  leading  reformer,  near  the  middle  of  the 
century  wrote  to  a  friend  :  *'  In  a  few  years  Christianity 
will  come  to  Japan  and  capture  the  hearts  of  the  best 
young  men  "  ;  and  a  short  time  ago  it  was  declared  by  a 
distinguished  foreigner  that  ''new  Japan  is  largely  a 
product  of  Christian  influences."  ^ 

"The  personal  influence  of  Christian  statesmen  of  America, 
England,  or  Germany,"  wrote  Dr.  Gordon,  "over  Japanese  states- 
men has  been  deeply  felt  and  acknowledged.  It  is,  for  example, 
an  open  secret  that  when  Count  I  to,  who  afterward  framed  the 
national  constitution,  visited  Germany,  he  was  remarkably  affected 
by  the  evidently  sincere  declarations  of  the  Emperor  William  and 
Prince  Bismarck  that  the  Christian  religion  is  essential  to  the 
prosperity  of  Japan.  .  .  Christian  civilization  has  achieved  and  is 
achieving  a  great  victory  physically,  intellectually,  and  morally, 
in  that  far-off  island  empire."  ^ 

Last  January  (1900)  its  government  submitted  a  bill  to 
the  Diet,  placing  all  religions  on  precisely  the  same 
basis,  thus  giving  practical  effect  to  the  freedom  of  con- 

*  Speer,  "  Missions  and  Pohtics  in  Asia,"  p.  190.        ^  Ibid.,  p.  191. 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  503 

science  already  guaranteed  by  the  constitution.  This  is 
a  most  important  measure.  It  gives  to  Christianity  a 
recognized  standing  and  definite  civil  rights,  and  ex- 
empts its  houses  of  worship  from  taxation,  as  the  tem- 
ples of  Buddhism  and  Shintoism  are  favored.  With  this 
new  opportunity  there  can  be  little  doubt  as  to  the  re- 
sult. No  religion  has  ever  yet  been  able  to  hold  its 
own  against  the  Cross  when  the  conditions  have  been 
equal.  Whenever  their  respective  claims  have  been  de- 
termined on  their  merits,  and  uninfluenced  by  adventi- 
tious circumstances,  Christianity  has  always  forged  tri- 
umphantly to  the  front. 

But  it  may  be  objected  that  its  early  victories  in 
Japan  have  not  continued  during  recent  years,  and  par- 
ticularly since  the  humiliation  of  China.  To  some  ex- 
tent this  may  be  admitted.  It  is  one  of  the  perils  of 
military  success  that  "we  forget,"  and  come  too  much 
to  rely  on  ''  reeking  tube,"  and  with  our  "  valiant  dust 
build  on  dust."  With  her  toy  houses  of  dust  Japan  is 
playing  at  present.  Her  next  war,  if  not  some  internal 
convulsion,  will  rouse  her  from  her  folly.  The  faith  of 
the  West  had  much  to  do  with  her  social  and  national 
revivification.  Her  condition  was  pitiably  weak  and 
depraved  when  the  Earl  of  Elgin  (1858)  drew  her  into 
commercial  relations  with  Great  Britain  ;  yet  this  advan- 
tage would  have  availed  her  little  but  for  the  beginning 
and  extension  of  Protestant  missions.  In  1623  her 
rulers  had  exterminated  the  Christianity  of  that  time 
which  owed  its  origin  to  the  zeal  of  Roman  Catholics, 
and  the  work  had  to  be  begun  afresh  in  this  century. 
But  when  once  it  was  commenced  it  increased  rapidly, 
and    soon  the  number  of    native  Christians    exceeded 


504      CHKISTIAMTV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

twenty-eight  thousand.  The  whole  country  felt  the  re- 
invigorating  power  of  the  new  moral  life.  The  people 
became  more  alert  and  progressive,  more  thorough  and 
independent,  and  thus  quickened  and  developed  they 
proved  more  than  a  match  for  China.  But  now  if  the 
island  kingdom  recedes,  if  she  puts  away  from  her  the 
Cross,  and  yields  to  the  inevitable  moral  decline,  the 
Russian  Empire,  that  is  planting  itself  in  Korea,  may 
strike  at  her  sovereignty  successfully.  There  is  at 
present  an  uneasy  feeling  in  Japan.  A  writer  in  "  The 
Yorozu  C/io/io"  thus  describes  her  condition  : 

Japan's  case  is  that  of  Christian  civiHzation  without  Christi- 
anity. She  is  aiming  at  a  definite  form  of  organization  without 
the  life  that  organized  it.  The  peculiar  awkwardness  of  her 
present  position  is  due  to  her  hopeless  attempt  to  assimilate  the 
new  civiHzation  to  her  old  ideals. 

And  if  she  persists  it  will  terminate  in  a  national  ca- 
tastrophe as  marked  in  its  way  as  the  convulsion  that 
overwhelmed  Jerusalem  after  the  rejection  of  Christ 
and  his  mission.  Evidently  Christianity  has  had  much 
to  do  in  qualifying  her  to  take  her  place  with  the  Western 
nations,  and  if  she  is  to  continue,  and  if  she  is  to  play  a 
part  in  the  history  of  the  Orient  at  all  comparable  with 
the  effect  of  her  decisive  struggle  with  China,  then  she 
must  return  to  the  Faith,  and  its  devoted  adherents  must 
do  what  they  can  to  revive  its  influence  and  authority. 

And  as  yet  we  have  said  nothing  of  China  and  India, 
those  enormous  empires  whose  vastness  invests  them 
with  a  singular  mysterious  charm,  and  prevents  them 
from  being  at  all  compassable  in  an  ordinary  trea- 
tise.     What  then  can  be  said  of  them   in  our  limited 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  505 

space,  and  of  the  divine  religion  that  has  been  brooding 
over  them  for  a  hundred  years,  Uke  the  Creative  Spirit 
moving  on  the  face  of  the  waters  before  chaos  was  dis- 
turbed, but  without  as  yet  perceptibly  dividing  the  dark- 
ness from  the  light  ?  At  an  earlier  date,  however, 
Christianity  had  advanced  its  outposts  beyond  the  bor- 
ders of  these  wonderful  domains.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  gospel  was  carried  into  India  by  one  of  the  apostles, 
and  in  the  sixth  century  it  was  proclaimed  by  the  Nes- 
torians  in  China.  The  divine  message  seems  to  have 
made  little  impression  on  these  lands.  Its  teachings 
were  as  alien  to  the  native  mind  as  were  the  manners 
and  methods  of  the  teachers,  and  were  apparently  re- 
ceived with  silent  contempt.  As  when  the  civilization 
of  the  Tiber  broke  with  its  clamorous  voices  and  riotous 
ways  on  the  quietness  of  the  Ganges,  so  the  stirring 
and  revolutionary  faith  of  the  Cross  at  first  only  star- 
tled and  amazed  : 

The  brooding  East  with  awe  beheld 

Her  impious  younger  world  ; 
The  Roman  tempest  swelled  and  swelled, 

And  on  her  head  was  hurled. 
The  East  bowed  low  before  the  blast 

In  patient,  deep  disdain  ; 
She  let  the  legions  thunder  past 

And  plunged  in  thought  again. 

Nor  is  she  yet  thoroughly  aroused  from  her  medita- 
tion. The  English  Baptists  renewed  the  attempt  to 
evangelize  India  on  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  Morrison  commenced  Protestant  mission  work  in 
China  in  1807.  Since  then  considerable  progress  has 
been  made ;  and  yet  in  comparison  with  the  unheeding 


506      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  the  unmoved  mass  the  achievements  are  as  slight 
and  imperceptible  as  the  small  and  widely  separated 
oases  that  diversify  without  changing  the  character  of 
the  desert.  But  history  is  being  made  rapidly  in  the 
East,  particularly  in  China  ;  and  the  next  few  years  are 
crucial.  What  missions  have  commenced  will  soon  be 
accelerated  by  politics  and  commerce.  Under  various 
pretexts  European  nations  are  practically  dividing  among 
themselves  large  portions  of  Chinese  territory;  and  the 
United  States  government  has  secured  from  all  parties 
concerned  an  agreement  that  the  **  open  door  "  policy 
shall  be  maintained.  How  long  such  an  agreement  will 
hold,  and  how  far  even  written  guarantees  will  be  ob- 
served by  European  statesmen,  it  is  not  easy  to  foresee. 
But  it  may  safely  be  said  that  when  their  interests  seem 
to  demand  a  rejection  of  treaties,  and  the  repudiation 
of  pledges,  they  will  not  be  slow  to  discover  a  way  out 
of  their  entangling  conventions.  But  whatever  the 
issue,  it  will  be  found  at  last  that  everything  is  des- 
tined ''to  fall  out  for  the  furtherance  of  the  gospel." 
As  long  as  the  existing  arrangements  are  uninterrupted 
Christian  missions  enjoy  a  comparative  immunity  from 
hostile  demonstrations,  and  can  pursue  their  way  un- 
molested, silently  leavening  the  empire  ;  and  if  violent 
disruption  and  dismemberment  come  in  the  near  fu- 
ture, they  are  on  hand  so  to  take  advantage  of  the 
crisis  as  to  plant  firmly  the  church  of  Christ  in  the 
heart  of    what   will   be  the    new  world  of    the    East,^ 

^  While  these  words  were  passing  through  the  press  the  world  was 
startled  by  the  "  lioxer  "  outbreak  in  China,  and  horrified  by  the  trag- 
edy at  Pekin.  What  it  all  means  none  can  know,  but  the  kingdoms  of 
the  earth  must  become  the  kingdoms  of  the  Christ. 


THE    NATIONS    AND    RELIGION  50/ 

They  will  assuredly  have  a  voice  in  determining  the 
moral,  social,  and  economical  conditions  of  the  future. 
The  ethnic  faiths  of  heathen  lands  have  demonstrated 
their  supineness  and  weakness.  From  them  nothing 
is  to  be  expected  of  good,  and  they  have  not  virility 
enough  to  interpose  an  effective  barrier  in  the  path  of 
the  gospel.  They  cannot,  in  the  nature  of  things,  exert 
a  molding  potency  on  the  age  soon  to  be  born  in  the 
Orient.  Their  day  is  past.  They  have  no  to-morrow. 
Christianity  is  their  God-ordained  successor.  It  will 
survive  when  they  have  perished,  and  it  will  pursue  its 
benignant  mission  through  the  lands  long  blighted  by 
their  supremacy.  And  as  these  lands  emerge  from 
darkness  and  desolation  the  instrumentality  of  Chris- 
tianity will  be  recognized  in  their  illumination  and  de- 
liverance ;  and  as  they  take  their  places  side  by  side  with 
European  nations  and  begin  to  bear  their  part  in  shaping 
the  destinies  of  mankind,  a  telling  demonstration  will 
be  furnished  of  its  supreme  influence  on  a  hundred 
years  of  history. 

Referring  to  God's  ancient  people,  Stade  writes : 
''  The  history  of  Israel  is  essentially  a  history  of  religious 
ideas  "  ;  and,  while  I  cannot  say  quite  as  much  of  the  im- 
mediate past,  still  their  unique  and  perennial  power  must 
be  acknowledged.  They  shine  perpetually  like  stars  in 
the  overarching  skies  of  human  affairs,  and  brighten  the 
path  of  men  and  of  nations.  None  of  us  can  be  quite 
satisfied  with  all  their  movements,  combinations,  and 
practical  emanations  ;  nevertheless,  on  the  whole,  they 
have  achieved  wonderfully  and  propitiously.  They  have 
been  shaping  themselves  more  and  more  into  a  kind  of 
austral  cross,  the    gleaming  prognostic  of    a  southern 


508      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

day.  The  relation  of  Christianity  to  a  century  of  his- 
tory is  nut  discouraging,  but  rather  otherwise.  It  has 
presented  the  phenomenon  of  a  religion,  not  always 
officially  or  by  the  direct  planning  and  scheming  of  its 
dignitaries  and  representatives,  working  itself  into  the 
tumultuous  events  and  revolutionary  changes  of  the 
times  ;  and  doing  so  often  in  the  face  of  the  most  des- 
perate opposition,  and  in  such  a  way  as  frequently  to 
modify  or  transform  their  character.  In  this  manner  it 
has  come  to  reveal  itself  more  clearly  as  an  independent 
force,  like  the  wind,  to  which  in  a  sense  our  Lord  com- 
pared it,  blowing  whither  it  listeth,  and  bearing  in  its 
breath  the  life-giving  airs  of  paradise.  Being  thus  free 
to  assert  itself,  and,  while  acting  on  man  and  through 
man,  seeking  its  final  development  in  man,  being  en- 
larged on  its  divine  side,  it  has  been  able,  and  is  yet 
able,  to  control,  order,  and  time  all  things  in  the  interest 
of  Christ  and  his  kingdom.  This  is  the  conviction  that 
grows  upon  us  from  the  review  of  the  last  hundred 
years.  And  as  we  look  back  the  evidence  accumu- 
lates that  all  movements  are  accordingly  tending  toward 
a  consummation  when,  as  Sir  Edwin  Arnold  sings  : 

High  as  the  herald  star  which  fades  in  floods 
Of  silver,  warming  into  pale  gold,  caught 
By  topmost  clouds,  and  flowing  on  their  rims 
To  fervent  glow,  flushed  from  the  hrink 
With  saffron,  scarlet,  crimson,  amethyst  : 
Whereat  the  sky  burns  splendid  to  the  blue. 
And,  robed  in  raiment  of  glad  light,  the  King 
Of  light  and  glory  cometh. 


XI 

THE  OBSTRUCTIONS  AND  OPPOSITIONS 


Yet  this  is  He  of  whom  we  made  our  boast, 

Who  lit  the  Fiery  Pillar  in  our  path, 
"Who  swept  the  Red  Sea  dry  before  our  feet, 

Who  in  his  jealousy  smote  kings,  and  hath 
Sworn  once  to  David  :  One  shall  fill  thy  seat 

Born  of  thy  body,  as  the  sun  and  moon 
'Stablished  for  aye  in  sovereignty  complete. 

O  Lord,  remember  David,  and  that  soon. 
The  glory  hath  departed,  Tchabod  ! 

Yet  now,  before  our  sun  grow  dark  at  noon, 
Before  we  come  to  nought  beneath  thy  rod, 

Before  we  go  down  quick  into  the  pit, 
Remember  us  for  good,  O  God,  our  God. 

—  Christina  Rossetti. 

But  all  things  shall  be  ours  !     Up,  heart,  and  sing. 
All  things  were  made  for  us — we  are  God's  heirs  ; 
Up  from  thy  depths  in  me,  my  child-heart  bring — 
The  child  alone  inherits  anything  : 
God's  little  children  gods — all  things  are  theirs. 

—  George  Macdonald. 


XI 


THE     LIMITATIONS     OF     CHURCH     SUCCESS     IN     THE     NINE- 
TEENTH   CENTURY 

The  impression  has  been  zealously  propagated  that 
the  transit  of  time  from  the  nineteenth  century  to  the 
twentieth  is  being  ominously  marked  by  the  increasing 
debility  and  decay  of  Christianity.  This  alleged  con- 
dition of  spiritual  senility  and  decrepitude  has  been 
hailed  with  every  token  of  satisfaction  by  one  section 
of  society,  and  has  been  equally  lamented  by  the  other. 
They  alike  have  been  so  infatuated  and  bewildered  by 
the  triumphant  shouts  of  the  foes  of  Christianity,  and 
by  the  despairing  wails  of  her  faint-hearted  friends, 
that  they  have  in  common  quite  overlooked  the  signs  of 
her  strength  and  the  evidences  of  her  successes,  with 
which  these  pages  have  made  us  somewhat  familiar,  and 
have  never  taken  pains  to  ascertain  the  measure  of 
what  they  regard  as  failure,  or  to  account  for  it  on 
rational  principles.  In  this  respect  they  have  acted 
with  less  discrimination  than  they  have  shown  when 
startled  by  complaints  of  disappointing  results  in  other 
departments  of  thought  and  activity  ;  for  it  should  never 
be  forgotten  that  the  religion  of  the  Cross  is  not  the  only 
great  cause  which  has  come  short  of  the  promises  made 
and  the  expectations  excited  by  its  character  and  earlier 
conquests. 

Professor  Bryce  has  pointed  out  with  great  clearness, 
that  though    the   past  hundred   years   have  been  most 

5" 


512      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

fruitful  in  radical  changes,  the  prevalent  discontent 
proves  that  they  have  not  wholly  justified  the  eulogiums 
they  have  received.  With  the  enlargement  of  freedom, 
the  invention  and  application  of  machinery,  and  with 
the  extension  of  educational  privileges  to  the  masses, 
the  people  had  a  right  to  hope  that  the  termination  of 
their  ancient  disabilities  had  been  actually  reached,  and 
that  the  future  would  fully  compensate  for  untold  suf- 
ferings long  endured.  But  alas !  the  visions  dreamed  in 
1800  are  far  from  perfect  realization  in  1900.  Profes- 
sor Bryce  likens  this  generation  to  a  party  of  excur- 
sionists who  set  out  early  in  the  morning  to  scale  the 
side  of  a  lofty  mountain  : 

At  first,  the  vivid  flash  of  dawn  and  the  keen  morning  air  fill 
them  with  delight  and  make  even  the  difficulties  of  the  path  en- 
joyable. .  ,  But  when,  after  a  time,  the  air  has  grown  sultry  and 
the  limbs  have  lost  their  spring,  then  the  roughness  of  the  way 
begins  to  tell  upon  their  spirits,  and  the  peak  that  looked  so  near 
looks  no  nearer,  and  one  doubts  if  they  have  not  missed  the  way, 
and  another  is  sullenly  silent,  and  a  third  regrets  that  he  ever 
started,  and  what  was  meant  to  be  a  pleasure  turns  out  to  be  a  toil. 

Thus  the  age,  enamored  of  the  hoped-for  blessings 
which  the  exalted  achievements  in  the  domains  of 
politics,  science,  and  sociology  seemed  to  place  within 
its  reach,  has  struggled  onward,  joyfully  at  the  start, 
but  now,  wearily,  has  come  to  question  whether  the 
gain  is  really  worth  the  toil,  and  is  after  all  anything 
but  a  promissory  note  that  never  can  be  honored. 

Cries  of  ''failure"  are  heard  on  every  side.  They 
are  echoed  in  harsh,  discordant  tones  in  connection  with 
the  most  treasured  and  sacred  institutions,  enterprises, 
and    developments    of    the    Western    world,   from    the 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  513 

Mediterranean  to  the  North  Sea,  from  the  North  Sea 
to  the  Atlantic,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 
Freedom  is  held  up  to  derision  by  Pobyedonostseff  and 
the  Russian  press  ;  it  is  fiercely  and  vociferously  de- 
nounced by  leaders  of  thought  in  lands  accustomed  to 
despotic  rule  ;  and  it  is  not  shielded  from  criticism  in 
countries  where  it  has  wrought  its  mightiest  marvels 
and  bestowed  its  choicest  favors.  It  is  being  asked  in 
England  and  the  United  States,  and  that  too  not  by 
ignorant  demagogues,  of  what  particular  advantage  is  a 
liberty  which  confers  the  right  to  vote  for  gentlemen 
to  enjoy  the  emoluments  and  dignities  of  office,  but 
leaves  the  artisan  to  the  mercy  of  corporate  greed  and 
gives  him  no  voice  in  determining  his  own  wage  or  in 
deciding  whether  he  shall  be  permitted  to  work  or  not  ? 
And  of  what  avail  even  the  privilege  of  voting  when  it 
is  a  matter  of  current  belief  in  America,  and  scarcely 
concealed,  that  the  money  power  rules  at  Washington, 
and  rules  always  and  unscrupulously  in  its  own  interests  ? 
If  this  belief  is  well-grounded,  no  wonder  that  freedom 
is  held  up  to  scorn  ;  no  wonder  also  that  the  suspicion 
is  gaining  hold  on  the  public  mind  that  enormous  private 
wealth  is  inimical  to  its  preservation,  and  that  the  day 
is  fast  approaching  when  the  people  must  choose  between 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  or  the  supremacy  of 
despotic  capital. 

Municipal  governments,  likewise,  in  republics  are  con- 
stantly witnessing  to  the  unsatisfactory  outcome  of  uni- 
versal suffrage.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  free 
institutions  show  at  their  worst  in  cities.  There,  if 
nowhere  else,  they  have  been  easily  abused  by  political 
"bosses"  and  their  henchmen,  and  have  proven  them- 

2H 


514      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

selves  to  be  no  adequate  barrier  in  the  way  of  vice  and 
and  crime.  The  disclosures  of  what  has  been  going  on 
in  New  York,  the  payment  of  large  sums  by  the  pro- 
prietors of  disreputable  resorts  for  police  protection, 
and  the  toleration  of  all  kinds  of  infamies,  furnish  a 
painful  illustration  of  the  insufficiency  we  refer  to,  and 
which  probably  is  matched  in  less  degree  in  other  large 
communities.  But  shall  we  hastily  conclude  from  these 
shortcomings  that  liberty  is  a  failure,  and  that  on  the 
whole  it  has  not  made  for  the  advantage  and  happiness 
of  mankind }  Is  not  such  an  inference  altogether  too 
rash,  too  violent,  and  absolutely  too  absurd  ?  It  does 
not  and  cannot  carry  conviction.  In  view  of  the  pros- 
perity and  progress  of  the  nations  that  have  cherished 
freedom,  we  dare  not  be  guilty  of  such  ridiculous  calum- 
niation. All  that  these  deficiencies  and  weaknesses 
establish  is  that  freedom  as  yet  has  not  been  able  to 
*'  work  her  perfect  work,"  that  she  has  not  been  able  to 
overcome  certain  obstacles  in  her  way  or  transcend  the 
limitations  of  one  kind  or  another  by  which  she  is  ham- 
pered. This  is  the  reasonable  explanation  of  her  partial 
defeats  and  temporary  disasters.  And  we  ought  to 
think  in  the  same  way  when  accusations  of  failure  are 
laid  at  the  door  of  machinery,  of  education,  and  of  the 
.press.  That  these  mighty  appliances  have  not  accom- 
plished all  that  we  are  warranted  in  anticipating  from 
them  goes  without  saying.  Leading  educators  admit 
this,  and  they  are  discussing  in  conventions  and  maga- 
zines the  best  and  most  scientific  methods  by  which 
more  gratifying  results  may  be  attained.  Sociologists 
recognize  the  problem  which  machinery  has  introduced 
into  the  industrial  world,  and  are  striving  so  to  solve  it 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  515 

as  to  secure  to  the  people  the  advantages  of  machinery 
without  its  drawbacks.  Editors  are  not  blind  to  the 
special  difficulties  by  which  they  are  embarrassed  in 
giving  to  the  public  such  a  newspaper  as  shall  meet 
every  legitimate  demand  and  be  free  from  objection- 
able features.  Everywhere  we  hear  of  reforms  being 
matured  and  attempted  in  these  various  departments ; 
and  we  are  encouraged  to  look  for  important  improve- 
ments in  the  near  future.  To  talk,  therefore,  of  failure, 
when  only  all  possibilities  have  not  been  realized,  is  as 
indefensible  as  similar  talk  of  late  indulged  in  by  certain 
wiseacres  about  marriage.  No ;  wedlock  has  not  always 
fulfilled  its  promise,  and  in  its  actual  experiences  may 
have  fallen  far  short  of  its  ideals ;  but  nevertheless,  it 
has  been  and  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  human  hap- 
piness and  purity.  That  its  success  should  be  limited 
is  apparently  the  common  lot  of  our  worthiest  institu- 
tions and  our  highest  blessings.  They  all  seem  to  be 
bounded,  hemmed  in,  checked  by  counter  currents,  and 
frequently  polluted  by  the  influx  of  debasing  elements 
from  other  streams.  Considerate  men  and  women, 
even  though  not  positively  inclined  toward  optimism, 
and  however  disappointing  some  of  the  greatly  prized 
features  of  modern  civilization  may  be  proven,  will 
surely  agree  with  this  judgment.  They  will  discrimi- 
nate, will  make  allowances,  and  they  will  not  abandon 
hope  because  complete  ascendency  has  not  yet  been 
gained  by  what  is  most  admirable  and  desirable. 

May  we  not  claim  like  candor  and  "  sweet  reason- 
ableness "  when  the  alleged  decline  and  deadness  of 
Christianity  is  the  theme  ?  Why  should  her  supposed 
decadence  and  ruin  be  loudly  proclaimed,  and  that  too. 


5l6      ClIKISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

I  am  ashamed  to  pen  it,  with  here  and  there  a  note  of 
sneering  jubilation,  when  all  that  can  be  made  out 
against  her  is  that  her  labors  in  several  directions  have 
not  been  so  effective  as  they  might  have  been  in  different 
and  more  favorable  circumstances  ?  That  she  has  ac- 
complished much  and  wonderfully  during  the  last  hun- 
dred years  will  be  made  evident  before  we  are  done, 
particularly  in  the  closing  portions  of  this  volume.  We 
have  already  seen,^  however,  the  magnitude  of  her  power 
in  the  modern  world.  To  couple  her  name,  therefore, 
with  failure,  is  nothing  less  than  a  libel,  and  one  that  be- 
comes increasingly  shameless  when  it  is  considered  that 
the  inefficiency  complained  of  is  due  primarily  to  her  rep- 
resentative, the  church,  and  not  to  herself.  She  never 
fails  when  in  all  of  her  original  spirituality  and  simplicity 
she  has  access  to  the  people,  and  she  never  can.  Ikit 
acting  through  the  church,  through  organized  forms 
and  human  instrumentalities,  because  of  their  frailty 
and  earthiness,  she  has  often  found  it  next  to  impossible 
to  express  herself  in  all  of  her  saving  offices  of  life  and 
blessing:  as  she  would.  The  instrument  has  been  some- 
times  faulty  and  she  has  had  to  endure  the  reproach  ; 
the  harp  has  been  out  of  tune  and  she  has  been  derided 
for  the  discord.  Discriminating  criticism  at  least  is 
fairly  her  due.  And  then,  even  of  the  church  it  is  not 
warranted  to  use  language  that  re]ircsents  her  as  having 
practically  lost  her  grip  on  the  age,  and  as  having  be- 
come perhaps  irrecoverably  decadent.  Such  statements 
are  very  far  from  the  truth.  The  church  is  still  strong, 
full  of  resource,  capable  of  wonderful  achievements,  and 
entitled  to  the  confidence  of   mankind.     All  that   can 


1  Chapter  X. 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  517 

really  be  substantiated  to  her  reproach  is  that  her  suc- 
cesses have  not  been  so  great  as  they  might  have  been ; 
that  they  have  been  bounded  and  checked  in  particular 
directions  ;  and  that  they  are  sufficiently  serious  to  call 
for  the  inquiry  we  propose  to  make  concerning  their 
limitations  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  are  not  called  on 
to  consider  an  unprecedented  condition  of  things,  or 
one  that  is  true  exclusively  of  some  particular  type  of 
organized  Christianity.  The  progress  of  rehgion  has 
always  been  diversified  by  reaction  and  retrogression. 
Charts  full  of  zigzag  lines,  constructed  for  the  benefit 
of  traders,  representing  the  fluctuations  in  the  produc- 
tion and  prices  of  wheat  and  corn,  suggest  the  irregular 
and  chevroned  course  of  the  gospel.  It  has  varied  its 
advance  by  momentary  retreats,  and  it  has  not  gone  for- 
ward without  occasionally  going  back.  Thus  the  sub- 
apostolic  age  was  followed  by  a  season  of  declining 
spirituality.  With  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire  there 
was  an  awakening  of  intense  missionary  zeal,  which  car- 
ried life  and  light  to  the  new  kingdoms.  But  this  was 
succeeded  by  the  deadly  superstition  and  blighting  ap- 
athy of  the  Middle  Ages.  These  in  their  turn  disap- 
peared before  the  aroused  intellect  and  conscience  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  Reformation,  however, 
with  all  of  its  mighty  enthusiasm,  was  checked.  There 
followed  a  barren  era  of  controversy,  wrangling,  and 
bloodshed.  But  of  this  sprang  the  heroic  seventeenth 
century ;  and  this,  unhappily,  was  displaced  by  the 
moderatism,  the  coldness,  the  latitudinarianism,  and  the 
skepticism  of  the  eighteenth.  Then  began  the  revivals 
under  Wesley  and  Edwards.      It  seemed,  so  widespread 


5l8      CHRISTIANMTV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  deep  was  the  spiritual  quickening,  that  the  entire 
world  was  on  the  eve  of  conversion.  Alas  !  the  tidal 
wave  subsided  once  more,  and  then  reappeared  in  1800, 
only  to  sink  apparently  lower  than  ever  for  a  time.  In 
1855-57  it  rose  again  and  swept  majestically  over 
North  America,  and  was  felt  in  the  lands  beyond  At- 
lantic seas.  Since  then,  even,  there  have  been  similar 
movements,  not  perhaps  so  great  or  so  lasting,  but  as 
clearly  defined,  both  in  their  ascent  and  descent,  their 
expansion  and  contraction,  in  their  floodtide  and  ebb. 

Probably  we  are  to-day  experiencing  in  some  degree 
the  effects  of  depression  and  regurgitation,  and  it  doubt- 
less is  as  true  of  us  as  it  was,  according  to  Matthew 
Arnold,  of  the  poet  Wordsworth  : 

He  too  upon  a  wintry  clime 

Had  fallen — on  this  iron  time 

Of  doubts,  disputes,  distractions,  fears. 

He  found  us  when  the  age  had  bound 

Our  souls  in  his  benumbing  round  ; 

He  spoke,  and  loosed  our  heart  in  tears. 

But  at  the  same  time  we  ought  not  to  weep  as  they 
that  have  no  hope.  The  present  is  not  without  paral- 
lel in  the  past.  Let  the  savage  tremble  in  dismay  when 
the  sun  is  eclipsed,  we  know  that  the  blackness  is  not 
forever  ;  let  the  wind  cry  out  in  despair  when  the  vessel 
sinks  between  the  ascending  billows,  we  surely  must 
believe  that  from  the  watery  valley  she  will  rise  to  the 
foam-crested  hills  again.  Although  it  is  true  that  now 
it  is  neither  day  nor  night,  yet  we  should  not  lose  heart 
of  courage,  for,  as  the  prophet  declared  of  old,  and  as 
God  hath  verified  repeatedly  in  the  history  of  his  church 
— ''at  evening  time  it  shall  be  light." 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  519 

The  predominant  tone  running  through  current  com- 
ments on  the  present  rehgious  situation  reveals  a  settled 
disposition  to  restrict  whatever  of  falling  away  there  may 
be  to  the  evangelical  bodies.  Magazines  or  newspapers 
have  scarcely  anything  to  say  about  similar  signs  of 
weakness  and  decline  on  the  part  of  Romanism  and 
Unitarianism.  And  yet  a  fair  and  comprehensive  in- 
duction of  facts  does  not  sustain  any  such  partial  and 
one-sided  estimate.  Ever  since  Rev.  Dr.  Ewer's  singu- 
lar hostility,  thirty  years  ago,  to  the  church  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, in  w^iich  he  went  so  far  as  to  pronounce 
"  Protestantism  a  failure,"  there  seems  to  be  a  quiet 
assumption  in  various  quarters  that  there  must  be  some 
grounds  for  the  assertion,  and  that,  whatever  statistics 
may  say  to  the  contrary,  orthodoxy  must  be  slow^ly  wast- 
ing away.  Unitarian  congregations  may  be  di.sbanded, 
and  thousands  may  abandon  the  ranks  of  Catholicism, 
as  in  Austria  to-day,  and  yet  little  notice  be  taken  of 
these  reverses;  but  when  anything  like  them  occurs  in 
evangelical  denominations,  the  news  is  spread  with  light- 
ning rapidity  and  is  made  the  text  of  many  a  prophecy 
of  an  imminent  and  ultimate  catastrophe.  In  Boston 
several  houses  devoted  to  the  worship  of  God  have 
passed  of  late  from  the  ownership  of  the  anti-Trinita- 
rians into  the  hands  of  the  Trinitarians — one  on  Com- 
monwealth Avenue,  another  on  Newton  Street,  and  yet 
another  on  Tremont  Street — and  still  these  transfers 
have  not  been  to  any  marked  degree  regarded  as  signifi- 
cant. An  authority  beyond  question,  writing  of  Roman- 
ism in  France,  testifies  : 

Formerly  there  was  such  a  thing  as  Christian  life  ;  now  there 
are  only  Christian  practices.      The  great  inconsistency  fifty  years 


520      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ago  was  foith  without  works  ;  in  our  days  it  is  works  without  Chris- 
tian progress.  The  increase  of  worship  and  devotion  at  certain 
periods  hides  the  fact  that  in  the  population,  as  a  whole,  character 
is  degenerating.  ^ 

The  same  volume  confesses  :  ''  Victory  escapes  us,  and 
we  have  arms  that  are  invincible."  And  another  author 
writes  :  ''  One  is  constrained  -to  acknowledge  that  for 
the  great  mass  of  the  people  religion  is  reduced  to  a  few 
rites  and  binds  neither  the  mind  nor  the  will."  ^  The 
pen  that  recorded  this  judgment  having  enumerated 
the  immense  army  of  fifty  thousand  priests,  supple- 
mented by  some  twenty  thousand  '^rcligieux''  m  France, 
continues  : 

If  only  all  this  energy  were  employed  for  the  same  end  and  un- 
der proper  control,  with  the  sense  of  duty  as  motive,  the  New  Tes- 
tament as  guide,  and  an  infallible  government  and  unimpeachable 
piety  as  guarantee  for  its  efficacy,  what  might  not  the  result  be  ?  .  . 
The  first  clergy  in  the  world,  we  ought  to  be,  we  might  be,  con- 
sidering the  materials  of  which  we  are  composed.  In  reality  we 
are  among  the  last. 

And  yet  these  tokens  of  decay  in  France,  which 
could  be  indefinitely  duplicated  of  Romanism  in  other 
Furopean  countries,  are  usually  ignored,  particularly 
in  the  United  States,  where  misled  by  an  imposing 
local  growth,  the  result  of  immigration,  and  where 
political  exigencies  often  blind  men  to  everything  but 
the  means  of  gratifying  their  immediate  and  pressing 
ambitions,  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  papacy  is 
everywhere  increasing  in  strength  and  ought  to  be 
placated  at  almost  any  cost.     Government  cringes  be- 

^  '■'■  Aper^u  siir  la  situation  de  la  Religion,''''  etc.,  etc. 
^  "  Z<?  Clerge  Frangais  en  i8go.'" 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  52 1 

fore  the  Vatican,  is  anxious  to  conserve  its  good  will, 
is  ready  with  gifts  from  the  public  treasury,  and  hesi- 
tates to  offend  it  by  applying  the  constitutional  princi- 
ples on  religious  liberty  to  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philip- 
pines— except  perhaps  in  words,  words  ever  and  ever 
stultified  by  deeds  ;  and  by  this  kind  of  policy  in  the 
past  it  has  been  responsible  for  the  formation  of  anti- 
papal  parties  and  secret  societies,  which  have  thus  been 
called  into  existence,  not  by  un-Americanism  in  re- 
ligion, but  by  un-Americanism  in  politics.  These  time- 
servers,  who  imagine  their  tortuous  sycophancy  to  be 
statesmanship  and  who  seem  intent  on  inviting  disasters 
to  the  republic  by  giving  attention  to  the  would-be 
Richelieus  and  Mazarins  of  our  times,  are  only  deceiving 
themselves.  They  are  leaning  on  a  decaying  force  in 
the  political  world.  P'rance  dares  to  prosecute  and  fine 
the  Assumptionist  P'athers  ;  and  still  her  most  trusted 
leaders  are  repeating  the  watch-word  of  Gambetta — 
''  Clericalism,  that  is  the  enemy  !  " — and  Germany  stead- 
ily resists  priestly  aggressions. 

Our  representatives  by  and  by  will  also  awake  from 
their  illusions.  They  w'ill  come  to  perceive  that  Ro- 
manism is  not  so  commanding  and  so  strong  as  they 
imagined  ;  and  that,  while  its  liberties  as  a  religion  are, 
and  must  ever  be  regarded  as  sacred,  it  has  neither  the 
vigor  nor  the  influence  to  justify,  even  on  grounds  of 
earthly  expediency,  the  revival  of  its  supremacy  in  the 
affairs  of  State,  But  w^hether  our  partisan  politicians 
are  open  to  conviction  on  this  point  or  not,  one  thing  is 
clear  from  the  evidence  cited,  namely,  that  Protestant 
evangelical  churches  are  not  the  only  ones  that  have 
been  impeded,  strained,  and  buffeted  of  late.      We  do 


522      CHRISTIAMTV    IN    THE    NlxNETEENTH    CENTURY 

not  deny  that  these  evangelical  organizations  have  come 
short  of  success,  that  they  have  betrayed  unfortunate 
weaknesses,  and  have  not  proven  altogether  equal  to  the 
gigantic  task  imposed  on  them  by  the  new  age.  But 
our  plea  is,  that  they  are  not  alone  in  this  condemna- 
tion. It  is  shared  by  every  other  distinct  form  of  ec- 
clesiastical thought  and  polity.  They  have  in  common 
to  deplore  their  vulnerable  points,  and  to  acknowledge 
that  they  have  all  reached  certain  boundaries  beyond 
which  they  have  been  unable  to  carry  their  special 
work.  We  are  not  here  entering  into  the  comparative 
merit  of  these  various  types  of  Christian  administration ; 
we  are  neither  denying  nor  affirming  the  general  superi- 
ority of  one  over  the  others  ;  we  are  simply  maintain- 
ing, whether  due  to  internal  defects  or  to  outward  cir- 
cumstances, that  they  have  all  the  same  story  to  tell  of 
arrested  progress  and  of  partial  defeat. 

When  the  attempt  is  made  to  determine  the  range 
and  extent  of  these  limitations,  attention  is  at  once  fixed 
on  the  increasing  non-observance  of  worship  and  the 
falling  off  in  church  attendance.  Careful  estimates 
have  been  compiled  by  authors  whose  sympathies  are 
wholly  evangelical,  and  the  results  indicate  that  while 
there  has  been  a  relative  gain  in  church-membership, 
there  has  been  a  relative  numerical  loss  in  congregations 
— a  condition  only  to  be  explained  on  the  assumption 
that  many  professors  of  religion  do  not  so  highly  prize 
the  means  of  grace  as  formerly  and  consequently  ab- 
sent themselves  from  divine  service,  and  thus  encourage 
multitudes  to  imitate  their  example.  A  forsaken  and 
neglected  sanctuary  is  always  primarily  due  to  the  faith- 
lessness of  its  avowed  supporters.      If  the  followers  of 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  523 

Christ  are  in  their  places  on  Sunday,  the  people  of  the 
world  will  not  long  remain  away.  Were  a  census  to  be 
taken  of  those  who,  having  avowed  themselves  to  be 
the  Lord's,  only  attend  on  the  means  of  grace  irregu- 
larly, fitfully,  rarely,  or  not  at  all,  it  would  be  demon- 
strated that  the  root  of  the  evil  we  are  confronting  is 
within  the  church  itself.  Multitudes  of  those  who  are 
members  in  Protestant  denominations  seem  to  have  but 
little  interest  in  the  house  of  God  ;  and  Roman  Catholic 
services  reveal,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  a  significant 
destitution  of  men  ;  and  as  long  as  this  kind  of  indffer- 
ence  prevails  we  need  not  be  surprised  if  the  masses  of 
society  fail  to  recognize  the  claims  of  the  sanctuary. 
It  is  useless,  and  worse  than  useless,  for  Christians  to 
be  seeking  for  reasons,  apart  from  themselves,  by  which 
empty  pews  can  be  explained  ;  and  it  is  certainly  not 
very  consistent  to  deplore  the  falling  away  of  outsiders 
from  church  when  the  members  themselves  are  not  over 
careful  to  be  present. 

As  the  existence  and  dimensions  of  this  decline  are 
hardly  called  in  question,  statistics  for  purposes  of  con- 
viction are  not  really  necessary.  To  those,  however, 
who  desire  to  pursue  the  study  of  the  subject  more  in 
detail,  we  recommend  the  volumes  of  Rev.  Dr.  Josiah 
Strong  and  Rev.  Dr.  Daniel  Dorchester,  respectively 
named  ''The  New  Era,"  and  "The  Problem  of  Re- 
ligious Progress."  But  while  there  is  no  need  for  us  to 
reproduce  their  instructive  figures  in  all  their  fullness, 
there  are  some  of  their  findings  and  the  findings  of  other 
inquirers,  which  may  not  be  wholly  without  value  for 
us  to  record  and  ponder.  Thus,  for  instance,  we  may 
well    reflect    on    Dr.    Strong's    astounding     statement, 


524      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

''  that  less  than  thirty  per  cent,  of  our  population  are 
regular  attendants  upon  church,  that  perhaps  twenty 
per  cent,  are  irregular  attendants,  while  fully  one-half 
of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  or  more  than  thirty- 
two  million,  never  attend  any  church  services,  Protestant 
or  Roman  Catholic."  Nor  is  this  lack  of  interest  con- 
fined to  great  centers  of  population.  It  is  almost  as 
conspicuous  in  rural  districts  as  in  cities.  Governor 
Rollins,  of  New  Hampshire,  in  1898  made  this  perfectly 
plain  as  far  as  his  own  commonwealth  is  concerned,  and 
similar  conditions  to  those  he  described  are  prevalent 
in  Vermont,  Maine,  and  elsewhere.^  In  many  country 
towns  there  are  families  that  seem  to  have  no  religious 
affinities  or  susceptibilities  whatever.  They  observe  no 
Sabbath,  they  respect  no  sacred  institutions,  and  under- 
take no  kind  of  Christian  service.  Their  young  people 
are  ignorant  of  the  Bible,  are  irreverent,  and  if  they 
cross  the  threshold  of  a  meeting-house  it  is  only  to  par- 
take in  some  kind  of  entertainment  for  the  support  of 
a  cause,  which  ever  afterward  is  associated  in  their  mind 
with  cheap  and  unedifying  amusements.  This  state  of 
things,  however,  if  possible,  is  worse  in  large  commu- 
nities, particularly  in  cities  like  Glasgow  and  New  York. 
These  two  metropolitan  centers  may  be  taken  as  fairly 
typical  :  one  of  a  vast  population  essentially  homoge- 
neous and  reared  under  pronounced  religious  influences  ; 
and  the  other  of  a  composite  people,  representing  dif- 
ferent nationalities  and  various  creeds.  And  yet,  though 
widely  separated  in  these  respects,  they  present  the 
same  phenomena  of  desecrated  Sabbaths  and  neglected 
sanctuaries. 

1  •'  The  New  Era,"  p.  204. 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  525 

Glasgow  contains  eight  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
thousand  inhabitants,  most  of  whom  nominally  subscribe 
to  the  Christian  Faith  ;  and  yet  the  average  attendance 
on  public  worship  is  given  by  '^  The  Christian  Leader," 
a  local  journal,  at  one  hundred  and  forty-three  thousand 
three  hundred  and  fifty-five.  This  figure  was  reached 
by  an  able  canvass  of  all  congregations  undertaken  on 
a  favorable  day.  But  let  us  concede  that  it  is  only 
proximately  accurate,  and  let  us  add  another  one  hun- 
dred thousand;  and  still  how  pitiable  and  discouraging 
the  showing,  and  that  too  in  the  land  of  the  ''  solemn 
League  and  Covenant."  And  if  this  is  the  best  that 
the  Scottish  business  metropolis  can  show,  we  need  not 
affect  any  amazement  at  the  deplorable  situation  in  the 
metropolis  of  America. 

According  to  an  estimated  census  of  1896,  out  of  a  population 
of  three  million  one  hundred  and  two  thousand  five  hundred  and 
forty-four  there  were  two  hundred  and  fifty-five  thousand  six  hun- 
dred and  seventeen,  or  eight  per  cent.,  of  Protestant  church-mem- 
bers, twenty-seven  per  cent,  of  Roman  Catholics,  Jews,  etc.,  leav- 
ing about  one  milhon  three  hundred  and  seventy-two  thousand, 
or  sixty-five  per  cent,  of  those  classed  as  "non-religious,"  as 
compared  with  one  million  two  hundred  thousand,  the  population 
of  Tokyo,  the  second  largest  heathen  city  in  the  world.  In  1845 
the  Evangelical  church-membership  was  thirteen  and  five-tenths 
per  cent,  of  the  population.  In  1890  this  had  dwindled  to  eight 
and  eight-tenths,  and  the  decrease  is  still  in  progress.  New  York 
leads  all  other  large  cities  in  the  proportional  meagreness  of  its 
evangelical  faith,  with  the  exception  of  San  Francisco,  where  the 
Protestant  church-membership  is  only  five  and  eight-tenths  per 
cent,  of  the  population.  New  York  City  has  one  Protestant 
church  to  every  five  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty-eight  of 
population  ;  Alaska,  one  to  three  thousand  four  hundred  and 
sixty-one;   South   Dakota,   one  to  two  hundred  and  thirty-three, 


526      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  the  Indian  Territory,  one  to  two  hundred  and  twenty-seven. 
In  one  ward  in  Brooklyn,  "the  city  of  churches,"  there  is  no 
Protestant  church  in  a  popuhition  of  twenty-three  thousand. 

These  figures  have  been  published  by  New  York 
and  Boston  journals,  and  doubtless  are  in  the  main 
reliable.  It  is  true  that  they  do  not  give  returns  on 
church  attendance  ;  but  they  are  more  significant  ;  for, 
as  it  is  well  known  that  the  attendance  is  depress- 
ingly  meagre  when  even  measured  by  the  small  and 
diminishing  membership,  they  seem  to  indicate  a  per- 
ilous and  widespread  alienation  of  the  people  of  the 
city  from  the  religion  of  Christ.  There  can,  then, 
be  no  doubt  that  the  church  in  such  communities  as 
New  York  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  population, 
and  has  not  succeeded  in  gathering  and  preserving 
congregations  of  such  dimensions  as  to  inspire  confi- 
dence in  her  strength  or  devotion.  The  same  story  is 
told  of  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Boston,  London,  Berlin,  and 
Paris  ;  and  she  must  either  arouse  and  strenuously  exert 
herself  to  arrest  the  present  drift,  or  in  the  near  future 
expect  a  death  struggle  with  the  powers  of  darkness 
which  may  jeopardize  her  very  existence.  There  is 
still  time  to  retrieve  the  battle  and  win  the  day.  But 
if  professors  of  religion  persist  in  ignoring  the  signs  of 
the  times  ;  if  they  pursue  the  stupid  policy  of  counting 
as  enemies  those  who  tell  them  the  truth  ;  and  if  they 
are  content  with  the  laisser  fairc  method  and  the  dilet- 
tanteish  evangelism  of  recent  years;  while  Christianity 
will  survive  even  their  insensate  foil)-,  they  will  seriously 
retard  and  embarrass  her  advancement,  and  may  entail 
on  her  organized  forces,  known  as  churches,  humiliating 
and  almost  crushing  disasters. 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  52/ 

But  appeals  to  census  reports  are  not  the  only  means 
by  which  the  real  limitations  of  church  success  are  to 
be  determined.  Unfortunately  they  disclose  themselves 
clearly  at  different  points  and  in  various  directions,  and 
they  can  readily  be  ascertained  and  fixed.  The  inspection 
of  these  termini  is  necessary  if  we  would  understand 
how  swiftly  they  are  reached,  how  ominous  they  are, 
and  how  impassable  they  seem.  We  must  turn,  there- 
fore, from  the  consideration  of  statistics,  and  contemplate 
the  boundaries  by  which  the  activities  and  influence  of 
Christian  denominations  are  circumscribed  and  impeded. 

In  the  political  world  these  restrictions  are  painfully 
visible.  That  governments  in  some  lands  have  been 
benefited  by  the  labors  of  churches  may  at  once  be 
conceded,  and  that  too  without  debate.  The  century 
has  witnessed  many  improvements  in  the  affairs  of 
State.  A  higher  sense  of  the  value  of  national  honor 
prevails  in  various  countries.  Generous  and  humane 
covenants  and  enactments  have  mitigated  in  a  marked 
degree  the  horrors  of  war.  No  previous  hundred  years 
have  witnessed  anything  like  the  hospital  service  and 
the  army  nurses,  beginning  with  Florence  Nightingale 
during  the  Crimean  war ;  or  the  rise  and  devotion  of  the 
Genevan  Cross  Society  ;  or  the  magnanimity  with  which 
General  Grant  treated  the  Confederate  armies  on  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War  ;  or  the  sympathetic  telegram  of 
England's  Queen  to  the  widow  of  General  Joubert  who 
had  been  so  lately  in  arms  against  her  troops,  by  which 
the  nineteenth  century  has  been  so  remarkably  distin- 
guished. In  these  respects  the  epoch  now  ending  has 
been  morally  illustrious.  It  has  been  a  veritable  age  of 
chivalry,  surpassing  in  romantic  bravery  and  courteous 


528      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

bearing  the  former  age  to  which  this  proud   name  has 
been  exclusively  applied. 

But  while  these  and  other  ameliorating  changes  have 
taken  place,  and  while  they  are  in  the  main  to  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  labors  and  influence  of  organized  Chris- 
tianity, nevertheless,  there  are  not  lacking  signs  of 
enormous  evils  surviving  in  the  State  which  have  thus 
far  resisted  and  defied  the  remonstrances  and  appeals 
of  religion.  The  church  by  this  time  should  have  ren- 
dered war  obnoxious  to  the  conscience  of  humanity  and 
impossible  to  the  nations.  She  has  done  neither.  The 
gospel  committed  to  her  is  a  gospel  of  peace  and  good- 
will, and  is  as  thoroughly  opposed  to  bloodshed  as  it  is 
to  public  and  private  corruption.  To  suppose  for  a 
moment  that  it  countenances  slaughter  and  the  triumph 
of  violence  is  a  gross  insult  to  the  memory  of  Jesus 
Christ.  But  how  has  the  church  acted  ?  She  has  amelio- 
rated that  which  she  should  have  abolished.  She  has 
striven  to  humanize  what  is  essentially  brutalizing,  and 
she  at  times  has  eloquently  apologized  for  what  ought 
unhesitatingly  to  be  condemned.  Were  not  her  jarring 
sections  so  insanely  jealous  of  each  other,  and  were 
they  to  combine  for  this  one  purpose,  war  between 
Christian  peoples  would  forever  cease.  But  as  long 
as  the  dignity  of  ecclesiastics  and  their  apostolicity 
and  other  high-sounding  nothings  absorb  their  atten- 
tion and  keep  them  apart,  so  long  will  the  poor  laboring 
people  be  marched  forth  to  battle  and  death,  and  so 
long  will  these  helpless  victims  be  warranted  in  count- 
ing the  reverend  and  mitred  leaders  of  the  Lord's  flock 
among  their  murderers.  If  the  pope  is  in  reality  the 
head  of  Christendom,  let  him  lay  aside  for  a  little  while 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  529 

his  haughty  exclusiveness,  and  invite  all  pastors  and 
bishops,  Roman,  Greek,  Protestant,  to  meet  in  a  true 
Ecumenical  Council,  not  to  decide  who  among  them 
shall  be  greatest,  but  to  devise,  to  plan,  to  agitate  for 
the  suppression  of  war  and  for  the  enthronement  of 
peace.  That  were  a  spectacle  worthy  the  admiration  of 
angels  !  That  were  a  sight  to  hasten  the  conversion  of 
the  world  more  than  all  the  preaching  of  the  pulpit  for  a 
year !  And  that  were  a  scene  to  silence  the  scoffer 
and  make  all  good  men  rejoice  ! 

But  instead  of  this,  or.  anything  like  this,  what  have 
we  seen  during  the  century  ?  What  ?  Why,  the  war, 
1 839- 1 842,  waged  by  a  Christian  nation  against  China, 
and  which,  while  opening  the  live  treaty  ports  of  Can- 
ton, Amoy,  Foochow,  Ningpo,  and  Shanghai,  and  at- 
taching Hong-Kong  to  Great  Britain,  fastened  the  opium 
curse  on  the  population,  whose  ravages  have  recently 
called  forth  this  expression  of  horror  from  the  Viceroy 
Chang  Chih  Tung  : 

Assuredly  it  is  not  foreign  intercourse  that  is  ruining  China,  but 
this  dreadful  poison.  Oh,  the  grief  and  desolation  it  has  wrought 
to  our  people  !  A  hundred  years  ago  the  curse  came  upon  us 
more  blasting  and  deadly  than  the  great  flood  or  the  scourge  of 
the  fierce  beasts,  for  the  waters  assuaged  after  nine  years,  and  the 
ravages  of  the  man-eaters  were  confined  to  one  place.  ^ 

And  what  did  the  church  do  when  this  monstrous  wrong 
was  being  inflicted }  She  remained  practically  dumb 
and  apathetic.  While  to  their  credit  some  of  her  mem- 
bers protested  and  have  been  protesting,  the  great 
ecclesisastical  bodies  were  too  busy  with  Catholic  re- 
vivals, and  with  grave  questions  relating  to  genuflexions 

"Siam,"  by  Chang  Chih  Tung,  Chap.  X. 
21 


530      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURV 

and  other  vacuous  issues,  to  stir  themselves  energetically 
and  unitedly  on  behalf  of  a  much- wronged  and  much- 
afflicted  people.  And  since  then  ?  Since  then,  the 
soldier,  in  the  name  of  queen  and  country,  or  in  the 
name  of  liberty  and  patriotism,  has  carried  desolation 
into  India  and  the  isles  of  the  sea,  and  has  in  every 
instance  of  victory  fastened  the  liquor  curse  on  the 
temperate  Asiatics.  Since  then  Cuba  has  been  dev- 
astated by  the  Spaniard,  and  South  Africa  has  been 
converted  into  a  shambles  and  a  pandemonium  by  em- 
battled hosts,  and  now  we  ''  hear  of  wars  and  rumors  of 
war,"  and  now 

From  camp  to  camp,  through  the  foul  womb  of  night 

The  hum  of  either  army  stilly  sounds, 

That  the  fixed  sentinels  almost  receive 

The  secret  whispers  of  each  other' s  watch  ; 

Fire  answers  fire  ;  and  through  their  paly  flames, 

Each  battle  sees  the  other's  umbered  fiice  ; 

Steed  threatens  steed  in  high  and  boastful  neighs, 

Piercing  the  night's  dull  ear  ;    and  from  the  tents. 

The  armorers  accomplishing  the  knights, 

With  busy  hammers  closing  rivets  up, 

Give  dreadful  note  of  preparation. 

And  the  church — what  of  her  ?  The  famous  Peace 
Conference  has  been  held  at  the  Hague,  inspired  by  an 
emperor,  who,  scarcely  had  it  closed,  crushed  home  rule 
in  Finland,  and  added  the  Finns  to  the  Stundists,  Men- 
nonites,  Jews,  Dukhobortsi,  and  others  who  suffer  from 
Russian  imperialism,  and  yet  the  Greek  communion 
has  offered  no  effective  protest,  if  she  has  even  ventured 
to  utter  a  word  of  remonstrance. 

The  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  is  on  record  as  siding 
with  militarism   in  the  horrible  injustice  and  cruelty  in- 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  53  I 

flicted  on  Captain  Dreyfus  ;  and  it  stands  condemned  at 
the  bar  of  history  for  its  failure  to  use  its  influence  for 
the  benefit  of  the  oppressed  and  maltreated  Cubans. 
It  may  be  that  the  benevolent  offices  of  the  church — 
Protestant  and  Catholic — with  the  temporal  princes 
might  not  have  proven  successful,  but  at  least  they 
might  have  been  exercised.  She  is  not  to  be  blamed  for 
failure  ;  she  is  to  be  condemned  for  not  trying  to  suc- 
ceed. To  the  Peace  Conference  she  gave  not  a  whole- 
hearted support  ;  and  she  has  presented  no  united  front 
against  warlike  preparations  and  demonstrations,  either 
in  Europe  or  America.  It  is  not  denied  that  occasion- 
ally she  has  held,  or  more  accurately  speaking,  some  of 
her  members  have  held,  peace  meetings ;  and  that  she 
has  roused  to  condemn  the  possibility  of  a  struggle 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  over  the 
Venezuelan  boundary  question.  But  conceding  every- 
thing that  ought  to  be  conceded,  and  more  too,  yet  she 
has  not  arrayed  herself  as  a  whole  against  militarism, 
and  is  either  too  weak  to  attempt  anything  worthy  of  her 
divine  claims,  or  is  herself  too  worldly  in  spirit  for  the 
sufferings  and  brutalizing  tendencies  of  war  to  have  im- 
pressed her  adequately.  It  does  seem,  having  such  a 
gospel  as  she  has,  having  had  two  thousand  years  in 
which  to  preach  it,  and  having  had  access  to  the  chief 
rulers  of  the  nations,  that  by  this  time  she  should  have 
so  educated  the  civilized  races  as  to  render  ''  appeals  to 
the  sword,"  or  rather  to  the  cannon,  abhorrent,  intoler- 
able, and  impossible.  Here  her  limitations  are  painfully 
evident.  She  has  done  something,  but  she  ought  to 
have  done  more  ;  and  that  she  has  not  been  able  to 
transcend  a  certain  bound,  or  has  not  cared  to,  is    a 


532      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

grave  reproach.  It  has  tended  to  discredit  her  in  the 
eyes  of  thinking  men  and  women,  and  she  cannot  re- 
main in  this  position  much  longer,  feebly  confessing 
her  impotence  or  indifference  without  further  alienating 
from  her  altars  the  reverence  and  confidence  of  man- 
kind. 

When  we  pass  from  the  realm  of  statecraft  to  that 
of  social  life,  we  cannot  fail  to  observe  that  her  sway, 
while  encouragingly  manifest  in  many  ways,  is  still  cir- 
cumscribed and  obstructed.  "Thus  far  and  no  farther," 
society  seems  to  say  to  religion,  "  and  here  must  thy 
proud  waves  be  stayed."  As  the  sea  is  indispensable 
to  the  land,  cooling  and  sweetening  the  atmosphere, 
and  bearing  away  on  its  tides  the  poisoning  refuse  and 
polluting  excrement,  so  religion  has  proven  its  inesti- 
mable value  to  society  by  purifying  and  refining,  in 
some  degree  at  least,  its  governing  ideals,  and  by  the 
exportation  or  extermination  of  more  than  one  odorous 
and  defiling  curse.  But  as  yet  its  tides  have  never 
risen  quite  high  enough  to  wash  out  the  sewage  from 
the  subterranean  course  of  great  cities,  or  to  cleanse 
all  the  mud  flats  that  lie  partly  hidden  and  protected 
by  attractive  ridges,  crowned  with  the  beautiful  crea- 
tions of  affluence  and  pride.  Canute,  if  we  may  thus 
for  a  moment  impersonate  society,  has  succeeded  in 
checking  the  oncoming  waters,  if  not  by  a  command,  by 
barriers  of  one  kind  or  another,  and  with  more  or  less 
of  resisting  strength  ;  and  need  is  there  for  such  heav- 
enly influences  as  shall  give  to  the  world  a  spring-tide 
of  healing  and  refreshing  floods. 

The  farthest  outposts  of  church  success  in  recent 
social  life  are  easily  reached.     They  are  indicated  for 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  533 

US  by  newspaper  reports  of  unsavory  doings  in  aristo- 
cratic circles ;  by  magazine  articles  discussing  such 
questions  as  marriage,  divorce,  the  Malthusian  principle, 
and  the  abuses  of  wealth  ;  by  novels  which  deal  with 
the  petty  and  large  scandals  growing  out  of  sex  rela- 
tions, and  which  profess  to  be  seeking  the  promotion  of 
the  purest  idealism  through  the  most  disgusting  realism  ; 
and  by  plays  which  represent  the  modern  w^orld  as  a 
kind  of  polite  and  elegant  Sodom,  where  the  intellect 
is  almost  exclusively  occupied  with  the  frailties  of  men 
and  women,  where  lust  has  usurped  the  place  of  love, 
and  where  the  fortunes  of  a  soiled  soul,  like  Camille, 
are  assumed  to  possess  a  paramount  fascination  for  in- 
telligent and  well-bred  people  of  this  generation.  The 
stage  has  of  late  enlarged  its  empire  ;  but  it  seems  to 
have  lowered  its  always  low  standard  of  morals.  Its 
present  condition  may  be  judged  from  the  prominence 
now  given  to  the  ballet.  This  species  of  sensuous  diver- 
tissement is  thrust  before  the  eyes  of  theatrical  audiences 
on  every  conceiv^able  occasion,  often  without  even  the 
appearance  of  a  pretext,  as  though  no  entertainment 
could  be  complete  if  it  failed  to  appeal  to  the  passions. 
In  addition  to  this,  judged  by  newspaper  comments, 
more  brainless,  brazen-faced  women  earn  a  living  on  the 
stage  by  the  display  of  their  charms  and  their  ward- 
robes, and  call  it  acting,  than  ever  before  in  the  history 
of  the  dramatic  art.  All  the  efforts  of  reformers,  and 
all  the  endeavors  of  a  few  earnest  and  reputable  actors 
and  actresses  to  rescue  their  vocation  from  the  abyss  of 
shame,  have  not  succeeded  in  effecting  any  salutary 
change.  Why  this  should  be  the  case  it  is  not  easy  to 
understand.    We  all  are  interested  in  the  drama.     There 


534      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

are  few  among  us  to  whom  it  would  not  prove  an  ac- 
ceptable medium  of  recreation  and  instruction.  There 
is  in  it  that  which  appeals  to  the  average  man,  some- 
thing that  grips  him  strongly  and  moves  him  mightily. 
And  yet  its  trend  downward  is  so  pronounced,  that 
though  it  is  seen  and  deplored  by  its  warmest  friends, 
and  striven  against  by  some  of  its  professed  exponents, 
it  has  not  thus  far  been  arrested,  and  it  is  becoming 
doubtful  whether  it  can  finally  be  stayed.  Indeed,  it 
seems  rather,  that  as  society  advances  in  refinement, 
elegance,  and  wealth,  the  stage  declines  in  mental  vigor, 
and  in  those  qualities  which  make  for  pure  womanhood 
and  noble  manhood.  Of  this,  evidences  are  furnished 
by  the  criticisms  of  journals  on  much  that  has  been 
produced  in  the  theatres  of  late,  and  by  the  action  of 
the  municipal  authorities  here  and  there,  leading  even 
to  jury  trials,  to  prevent  performances  whose  demor- 
alizing tendencies  should  inhibit  them  from  license. 
And  if  the  drama  does  really  "hold  the  mirror  up  to 
nature,"  if  it  does  '*  show  virtue  her  own  feature,  scorn 
her  own  image,  and  the  very  age  and  body  of  the  time 
his  form  and  pressure,"  then  modern  society  is  far  from 
being  morally  sound  at  the  core,  and  its  condition  is  a 
pathetic  comment  on  the  labors  of  organized  Christianity. 
But  may  not  the  drama,  after  all,  be  a  false  witness, 
or  at  least  be  inadequate,  incompetent,  incomplete.? 
Such,  within  limits,  may  be  the  case  ;  and,  indeed,  it  is 
difficult  to  conceive  that  humanity  is  as  silly,  affected, 
conscienceless,  and  as  absorbed  in  romantic  adulteries 
as  play  writers  usually  represent.  But  then  there  are 
other  witnesses.  What  does  art  in  other  relations  tes- 
tify."*    What  about  the  novel,  about  sculpture,  painting.-* 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  535 

Do  these  corroborate  the  testimony  of  the  stage,  and  if 
so,  in  what  particulars  ?  That  it  is  not  wholly  untrust- 
worthy may,  I  think,  be  proven  by  the  strenuous  plead- 
ings in  recent  literature  on  behalf  of  the  nude  in  art, 
not  only  in  pictures  but  in  books.  To  judge  from  some 
utterances  on  this  subject,  beauty  suffers  if  the  free  ex- 
posure of  those  portions  of  the  body  which  the  instinct 
of  modesty  veils  be  not  allowed  and  welcomed.  One 
would  suppose  from  the  delirium  of  this  school  that 
authors  like  Victor  Hugo,  Lamartine,  George  Meredith, 
and  Ruskin,  and  painters  like  Holman  Hunt,  Millais, 
and  Burne-Jones,  were  not  masters  of  their  craft  be- 
cause they  avoid,  and  that  too  without  any  affectation 
of  prudery,  the  method  of  stark  naked  realism.  It  is 
usually  overlooked  by  those  who  are  its  devoted  parti- 
sans that  it  had  its  origin  at  the  first  in  a  civilization 
where  the  ethical  was  less  highly  prized  than  the  sesthet- 
ical,  and  whose  fortunes  were  not  such  as  to  induce  us 
to  imitate  its  principles.  The  Greek  mind  was  singu- 
larly enslaved  by  the  charms  of  the  human  body.  But 
writers  who,  in  defense  of  the  nude  in  art,  always  as- 
sume that  this  bondage  was  disassociated  from  prurient 
thoughts  and  libidinous  desires  cannot  be  familiar  with 
social  conditions  in  ancient  Greece.  Perhaps  they  will 
permit  so  exceptionally  well  qualified  a  witness  as  Rev. 
Frederick  W.  Robertson,  of  Brighton,  to  correct  their 
immature  and  altogether  defective  views  on  this  subject. 
This  brilliant,  cultured,  and  liberal  clergyman  in  his 
"  First  Advent  Lecture,"  says  : 

"The  arts/'  in  Greece,  "became  religion  and  religion  ended 
in  the  arts.  Hence,  necessarily,  sensuality  became  religious,  be- 
cause all  feelings  produced  by  these  arts,  chiefly  the  voluptuous 


536      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ones,  were  authorized  by  religion.  There  is  a  peculiar  danger  in 
refinement  of  sensuous  enjoyments.  Coarse  pleasures  disgust, 
and  pass  for  what  they  are,  but  who  does  not  know  that  the  real 
danger  and  triumph  of  voluptuousness  are  when  it  approaches  the 
soul  veiled  under  the  drapery  of  elegance?  They  fancied  them- 
selves above  the  gross  multitude,  but  their  sensuality,  disguised 
even  from  themselves,  was  sensuality  still,  aye,  and  even  at  times, 
in  certain  festivals,  broke  out  into  gross  and  unmistakable  licen- 
tiousness. And  hence,  the  greatest  of  the  Greeks,  in  his  imag- 
inary Republic,  banished  from  that  perfect  State  ...  all  the 
statues  which  could  suggest  one  single  feeling  of  impurity.  Him- 
self a  worshiper  of  the  purest  beautiful,  it  was  yet  given  to  his  all 
but  inspired  heart  to  detect  the  lurking  danger  before  which 
Greece  was  destined  to  fall — the  approach  of  sensuality  through 
the  worship  of  the  graceful  and  the  refined."  * 

Plato  was  no  Puritan,  but  he  saw  as  clearly  as  any 
Puiitan  that  the  eye  cannot  be  familiarized  with  the 
nude  in  art  without  defiling  the  imagination.  We  may 
argue  that  it  ought  not  to  be  so,  we  may  insist  that  the 
impurity  is  in  the  mind  itself  and  not  in  the  object,  but 
all  of  our  special  pleading  does  not  alter  the  fact  that  it 
is  so,  nor  change  the  evidence  that  comes  to  us  from 
the  histories  of  Greece  and  France,  that  forms  of  uncn- 
veloped  loveliness  carved  in  marble  or  painted  on  canvas 
are  not  conducive  to  continence  and  virtue.  It  cannot, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  a  wholesome  sign,  that  not  a 
few  who  help  to  fashion  public  sentiment  are  talking 
about  their  genius  being  cramped  by  English  and 
American  prudery,  siiiiply  because  there  is  still  some 
hesitancy  among  virile  and  intelligent  people  about 
rushing  backward  into  the  art  slush  and  mire  of  former 
ages.      That  these  frantic  reactionaries  should  have  any 

'  "Sermons,"  First  Series,  p.  202. 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  53/ 

audience  at  all,  especially  as  large  and  as  sympathetic 
an  audience  as  they  have,  is  unfortunate,  and  if  it  is 
symptomatic,  as  probably  it  is,  goes  to  corroborate  the 
pictures  of  modern  society  portrayed  nightly  before  the 
eyes  of  admiring  thousands  by  the  drama. 

And  in  an  equal  degree  many  novels  do  the  same. 
Not  a  few  of  them  are  doubtless  penned  with  the  best 
intentions,  and  are  so  constructed  as  not  to  promote  the 
vice  and  crime  they  so  graphically  describe.  This  is 
true  of  Victor  Hugo's  '' Les  Miserablcs,''  and  Hall 
Caine's  "The  Christian,"  and  of  others  that  shall  be 
nameless.  But  leaving  out  of  sight  their  moral  purpose 
and  moral  influence,  is  it  not  reasonable  to  assume  that 
the  story  and  romance  writers  of  our  day,  when  dealing 
with  our  day,  are  fairly  faithful  to  its  chief  character- 
istics.? The  ''Anna  Karenina,"  the  "Kreutzer  Sonata," 
and  the  ''  Resurrection  "  of  Tolstoy,  the  "  Jude,  the  Ob- 
scure," of  Thomas  Hardy,  the  ''Ghosts,"  and  "When 
We  Awake  from  the  Dead,"  of  Ibsen,  the  "  Paris,"  and 
'' Fecojidite,'"  of  Zola,  and  the  various  picturesque  vol- 
umes of  William  Dean  Howells,  are  surely  true  to  life 
as  it  is  on  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Does 
Zola  exaggerate  when  he  portrays  the  unpopularity  of 
motherhood,  and  the  crimes  that  are  being  enacted  in 
countries  new  and  old  against  childbearing  ?  We  have 
all  been  made  acquainted  with  the  extent  of  these  evils 
in  France,  and  we  more  than  suspect  their  increase  in 
the  United  States  ;  and  now  a  statesman  in  New  South 
Wales  writes :  "From  Maoriland  comes  the  cry  that  the 
children  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  fill  the  schools, 
while  in  Victoria  there  must  be  a  like  state  of  affairs, 
seeing  that  there  are  now  a  less  number  of  children 


538      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

under  ten  years  of  age  than  in  1891."  The  strike  of 
the  French  against  motherhood  is  evidently  extending, 
reaching  even  to  far-off  colonies,  and  what  is  equally  sad 
and  portentous,  illegitimacy  increases  in  proportion  as 
the  dignity  of  motherhood  wanes.  Mr.  Coghlan  declares 
that  in  New  South  Wales  ''  twenty-seven  per  cent,  of 
the  marriages"  in  a  given  period,  ''took  place  after  the' 
bride  was  encientc!'  ^  And  this  is  a  sufficient  illustration 
of  the  immoralities  fostered  by  theories  which  we  fear 
have  more  adherents  than  is  generally  supposed,  and  in 
which  the  family  idea  is  brought  into  disfavor  and  dis- 
repute. If  society,  then,  is  not  misrepresented  by  ''  Fe- 
condite,''  and  if  its  image  is  adequately  reflected  in  the 
lust,  the  greed,  the  petty  foibles,  the  ignoble  ambitions, 
the  gilded  vice,  the  pharisaical  impiety,  the  despicable 
intrigues,  the  broken  marriage  vows,  and  the  sentimental 
loves  perpetually  recurring  and  continually  bringing  to 
light  ungovernable  passions,  which  make  up  the  warp 
and  woof  of  many  novels,  then  the  drama  is  not  a  false 
witness,  and  the  church  has  reason  to  be  depressed  by 
her  lack  of  success  in  fashioning  the  age  in  accordance 
with  the  high  ideals  she  proclaims.  She  is  not,  how- 
ever, to  be  blamed  as  though  she  were  the  cause  or  the 
occasion  of  its  moral  deformities  and  shortcomings. 
Hers  is  not  the  disgrace  of  their  origin,  though  she  can- 
not be  wholly  exonerated  from  the  shame  of  their  con- 
tinuance. She  either  has  or  has  not  the  means  within 
her  reach  by  which  they  can  be  overcome.  If  she  has 
not,  then  she  ought  to  seek  them,  and  if  she  has,  and 
has  not  been  diligent  in  their  use,  then  great  indeed  is 
her  responsibility  before  God  and  man.      But  on  either 

1  "  Review  of  Reviews,"  Feb.  15,  1900,  p.  178. 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  539 

supposition  her  limitations  are  visible,  and  ought  to  ex- 
cite the  gravest  concern  on  the  part  of  all  who  have 
confidence  in  her  mission,  and  especially  of  those  who 
are  charged  with  its  vigorous  prosecution. 

These  frontiers  which  arrest  her  advance  would  not, 
however,  be  so  discouraging,  or  seem  so  impassable,  were 
it  not  for  the  superficiality  of  her  influence  over  many 
of  her  own  members,  and  the  feebleness  of  her  hold  on 
their  convictions,  conscience,  and  conduct.  If  she  does 
not  move  more  rapidly  and  effectively  beyond  her  own 
boundaries,  one  reason  is  that  she  is  checked  within. 
She  is  held  back  by  those  who  should  impel  her  for- 
ward. She  is  like  a  military  establishment  whose  au- 
thority is  not  respected  by  the  soldiers,  and  whose 
power  and  skill  are  unequal  to  the  task  of  training  them 
for  service  in  the  field.  The  recruits  are  on  hand,  their 
numbers  are  suf^cient,  but  the  genius  for  discipline  and 
organization  is  not  available. 

Here  we  discover  another  limitation,  the  most  humili- 
ating and  appalling  of  them  all.  The  church  can  multiply 
converts  and  enlarge  her  communion,  but  when  it  comes 
to  the  work  of  developing  well-balanced  Christian  char- 
acter, and  of  combining  and  concentrating  her  forces 
against  intrenched  iniquities,  she  is  rarely  ever  more 
than  partially  successful.  She  is  hindered  and  ham- 
pered, challenged  and  resisted  even  where  her  word 
should  be  law,  and  where  her  sovereignty  should  be 
honored.  In  saying  this  we  are  not  forgetful  of  the 
hosts  of  loyal,  heroic  souls  that  serve  her  in  evil  as  well 
as  good  report,  nor  are  we  blind  to  the  fact  that  her  re- 
calcitrant children  are  better,  truer,  nobler,  because  of 
her  motherly  care  than  they  would  be  had  they  remained 


540      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

strangers  to  her  oversight.  But  the  flattering  recogni- 
tion of  the  homage  she  has  been  able  to  inspire  and  of 
the  benefits  she  has  been  fitted  to  confer,  cannot  and 
should  not  hide  from  our  eyes  her  failure  to  make  all  of 
her  members  all  that  they  ought  to  be  as  citizens  of  the 
heavenly  kingdom. 

Some  among  them,  and  these  not  a  few,  seem  to 
have  very  little  in  common  with  the  types  of  saintly 
character  which  have  shone  as  stars  in  the  dark  canopy 
of  human  history.  What  shall  be  said  of  a  Sunday- 
school  teacher  who,  having  introduced  her  class  into 
church-membership,  undertakes  to  train  these  young 
disciples  for  future  service  by  a  course  of  study  in 
Shakespeare }  A  singular  school  surely  in  which  to 
learn  Christ  and  to  be  taught  of  him  !  But  the  instruc- 
tor was  entirely  oblivious  to  the  incongruity,  and  appar- 
ently entertained  no  apprehension  that  she  was  fitting 
her  charge  to  take  more  interest  in  the  drama  than  in 
religion.  This  singular  lack  of  discernment  is  con- 
stantly matched  by  the  inability  of  other  professed 
Christians  to  see  anything  wrong  in  their  patronage  of 
plays  whose  performance  can  only  tend  to  weaken  the 
foundations  of  home-life  and  pander  to  the  indulgence 
of  illicit  love.  We  are  perfectly  familiar  with  their 
defense  ;  and  it  is  so  flimsy  that  we  can  hardly  believe 
that  they  themselves  are  deceived.  It  is  usually  ex- 
pressed in  terms  such  as  : 

We  despise  a  narrow  religion  ;  we  are  broad-minded  ;  our  nature 
demands  the  ministrations  of  histrionic  art  ;  we  can  discriminate 
between  the  evil  and  the  good  ;  we  are  not  ascetic  ;  and,  then, 
how  can  the  stage  be  reformed  if  Christians  afford  it  no  support  ? 

Aye,  indeed,  how  ?     But  does  it  never  occur  to  those 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  54 1 

who  fall  into  this  special  pleading  that  the  church  as  a 
whole  is  not  exacting,  that  she  does  not  impose  upon 
her  members  a  monastic  rule,  that  she  does  not  object 
to  breadth  of  mind,  but  only  to  that  width  of  conscience 
which  can  receive  with  equal  complacency  the  heroic 
verse  of  Shakespeare  and  the  obscene  innuendoes  of 
modern  dramatists,  and  that  her  contention  is  that  the 
mass  of  theatre-goers  from  the  pews  do  not  discriminate 
as  they  should,  that  they  do  not  protest  against  what  is 
vicious  and  profane  in  the  mimic  scene,  and  evince  no 
such  indignation  as  might  presumably  influence  money- 
getting  managers  to  reform  their  so-called  "  school  of 
virtue "  ?  And  what  is  there  that  furnishes  a  more 
lamentable  illustration  of  her  enfeebled  sway  than  the 
contemptuous  indifference  with  which  her  reasonable 
remonstrance  is  treated  by  her  theatre-loving  communi- 
cants ?  They  pursue  their  own  way  as  though  she  had 
never  spoken  ;  they  insist  on  misrepresenting  her  spirit ; 
they  evince  but  scant  respect  for  her  reproaches  and 
entreaties;  and  to  all  intents  and  purposes  they  side 
with  the  stage  against  the  church,  and  do  not  assist  the 
church  in  her  desire  to  reform  the  stage. 

This  insensibility  to  her  admonitions  has  another  ex- 
emplification in  the  ominous  decline  of  family  worship  ; 
for  notwithstanding  all  that  she  has  said  on  behalf  of 
the  common  household  altar  and  of  its  sacredness  and 
importance,  recent  and  careful  investigations  go  to  show 
that  it  is  being  more  and  more  neglected.  What  has 
become  of  the  "priest-like"  father?  Why  does  he  not 
gather  his  household  about  him  as  formerly  to  suppli- 
cate heaven's  King  for  mercy  ?  Wherefore,  in  alto- 
gether too  many  homes,  are  religion   and  religious  ob- 


54^      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

servance  ignored  ?  What  is  the  matter  ?  Has  the 
spirit  of  skepticism  invaded  the  domestic  circle  ?  Has 
the  head  of  the  family  conscientious  scruples,  growing 
out  of  the  incompatibility  of  his  ordinary  actions  with 
his  profession  of  faith  in  Christ,  against  standing  up 
before  wife  and  children  as  one  who  is  sufificiently  sin- 
cere and  consistent  to  lead  them  in  their  devotions  ?  Is 
he  afraid  that  they  who  know  him  best  will  receive  his 
ministrations  with  scarcely  concealed  impatience  and 
disdain  ?  Evidently  something  is  wrong.  Usually  it  is 
assumed  to  be  a  sufficient  explanation  when  the  blame 
for  this  neglect  is  laid  on  the  exacting  demands  of  busi- 
ness. We  are  told  that  men  have  now  no  time,  if  they 
would  succeed,  for  those  patriarchal  customs  which 
ideally  are  so  beautiful,  but  which  practically  are  so  in- 
convenient. But  does  not  this  very  confession  indicate 
a  diminished  confidence  in  the  providential  care  of  God, 
and  in  the  need  that  exists  for  his  wise  and  loving  suze- 
rainty over  our  temporal  affairs  ?  When  the  fires  burn 
low  on  the  family  altar  the  suspicion  is  more  than  war- 
ranted that  there  is  an  expiring  belief  in  their  value  and 
preciousness,  and  a  waning  sense  of  the  realness  of  those 
sublime  affirmations  of  the  Christian  Faith  to  which 
they  are  related.  If  this  inference  is  fair,  then  the 
smouldering  embers  on  the  **  sacred  hearth  "  cannot  be 
contemplated  with  unconcern  by  those  who  love  the 
Lord  Jesus  and  the  advancement  of  his  cause.  But  if 
they  only  denote  a  decline  in  spirituality  and  not  a 
growing  habit  of  questioning  the  fundamentals  of  relig- 
ion, still  they  mark  a  loss  of  power  in  the  members  of 
the  church,  and  a  loss  of  authority  in  the  church  over 
her  members. 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  543 

Nor  are  her  limitations  restricted  to  such  instances 
of  defective  piety  and  increasing  worldliness.  They 
are  further  to  be  traced  in  the  grotesque  and  degenerate 
types  of  discipleship  which  appear  to  be  multiplying  in 
evangelical  communions.  Not  a  few  restless  and  dis- 
satisfied souls,  not  over-gifted  with  discernment  and 
practical  common  sense,  who  have  found  the  yoke  of 
simple  obedience  unendurable,  and  who  have  never  been 
able  to  perceive  the  moral  grandeur  that  resides  in  duty 
done  in  daily  tasks,  have  become  conspicuous  of  late 
for  their  fads,  for  their  pretensions  to  an  esoteric  knowl- 
edge of  Christ,  and  for  their  abnormally  egotistic  esti- 
mate of  their  own  views  and  their  own  activities.  They 
talk  loudly  and  incessantly  of  their  self-immolation,  as 
though  they  were  pre-eminent  in  humility  and  sacrifice ; 
and  they  often  speak  of  their  own  faith  in  such  a  way 
as  to  create  the  impression  that  means  and  their  em- 
ployment are  unnecessary,  and  an  inexcusable  reflection 
on  God's  ability  and  faithfulness.  They  have  altogether 
the  air  of  the  superior  person  who  is,  of  course,  very 
sorry  for  the  inferior  orders,  but  whose  unctuous  self- 
depreciation  has  in  it  an  undisguisable  note  of  self-exalta- 
tion. These  extraordinary  and  exceptional  saints,  who 
presume  to  contradict  St.  James  and  affirm  that  faith 
with  works  is  dead  being  not  alone,  forget  apparently 
that  the  contemplative  life  should  be  retired  and  silent, 
and  that  when  it  becomes  vocal  and  voluble  it  loses  its 
charm  and,  perhaps,  its  reality.  For  self  to  call  atten- 
tion repeatedly  to  the  destruction  of  self  is  an  unmis- 
takable sign  that  self  is  in  a  fairly  good  condition  of 
preservation  and  is  still  able  to  speak  on  its  own  behalf. 

Some  of  those  who  indulge  in  this  bland  and  sacred 


544      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

self-complacency  are  individuals  of  extreme  amiability, 
and  are  undoubtedly  as  morally  blameless  as  the  more 
commonplace  saints  whom  they  affect  to  commiserate; 
and  they  might  be  quietly  ignored  were  it  not  that  they 
unhappily  influence  people  of  disheveled  intellect,  of 
disordered  fancies,  and,  occasionally,  of  dilapidated  repu- 
tations, to  set  up  as  unparalleled  and  unapproachable 
saints  themselves.  These  extravagant  and  incoherent 
creatures  find  the  ''order  and  decency  "  commanded  by 
St.  Paul  irksome  and  monotonous.  The  church  is  not 
holy  enough  for  them.  Like  St.  Peter  before  he  was 
enlightened,  they  presume  to  call  that  unclean  which 
God  has  cleansed ;  and  as  he  would  not  eat  of  those 
objects  in  the  sheet  let  down  from  heaven  against  which 
the  Mosaic  law  discriminated,  so  these  excited  rhapso- 
dists  are  not  disposed  to  eat  witJi  their  brethren  who 
have  not  risen  to  their  own  flighty  altitudes.  They  must 
have  their  own  services,  their  special  meetings ;  in  the 
name  of  peace  they  must  attempt  to  create  schism  in 
congregations;  in  the  name  of  humility  they  must  mag- 
nify their  own  holiness  and  traduce  their  brethren  ;  and 
in  the  name  of  truth  they  must  give  vent  to  the  most 
unwarranted  theories  and  the  idlest  speculations.  Be- 
lated in  their  understanding  and  following  a  degraded 
religious  instinct,  they  are  not  content  with  the  God- 
appointed  agencies  for  the  advancement  of  his  kingdom, 

and  consequently  put  into  prominence  as  teachers  A , 

who  rests  his  claim  to  a  hearing  on  his  having  been  till 

lately  a  gambler ;  and  B ,  who  is  encouraged  to  preach 

because  he  is  a  retired  pugilist ;  and  C ,  who  is  pushed 

to  the  front  on  the  ground  of  his  being  a  converted  pick- 
pocket ;  and   D ,  who  is  emboldened  as  a  reformed 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  545 

drunkard  to  berate  and  denounce  the  church,  through 
whose  instrumentality  he  was  originally  picked  from  the 
gutter.  And  under  the  pathless  ramblings  of  such  men, 
and  unshocked  by  their  coarse  familiarities,  infatuated 
groups  of  believers  become  ecstatic,  indulge  in  invec- 
tives against  churches,  and  work  themselves  up  into  a 
frenzy  of  indignation  against  every  one  not  to  their 
liking;  which  might  prove  harmful  to  the  peace  and 
order  of  society  were  it  not  that  the  frenzy,  being  only 
superficial  and  developed  for  the  occasion,  usually 
evaporates  in  the  vaporings  of  excited  speech. 

These  exhibitions  are  apparently  unpreventable  and 
uncontrollable.  Churches  thus  far  have  been  powerless 
to  restrain  them.  Their  persuasions  and  entreaties  have 
had  no  effect  upon  them,  and  have  only  served  to  em- 
phasize their  own  impotence.  Ministers  have  hardly 
dared  remonstrate  with  their  members,  particularly  if 
uneducated,  when  they  have  betrayed  a  drift  toward 
extreme  views  of  personal  perfectibility,  as  they  have 
learned  by  experience  that  ''the  anger  of  a  woman 
scorned"  is  as  a  soothing  zephyr  in  comparison  with  the 
unreasoning  indignation  of  self-conceited  ignorance  when 
sanctification  is  questioned.  Direct  interference  will 
probably  never  be  of  avail.  It  has  not  been  often  at- 
tempted. Mere  authority  has  always  failed,  and  can 
never  succeed.  Other  means  must  be  relied  on  and 
employed.  But  the  church  must  not  forget  that  the 
inability  to  provide  them  and  to  use  them,  reflects  inju- 
riously on  her  character  and  dignity.  Society  is  in- 
clined to  judge  her  hastily  by  the  excesses  and  extrav- 
agancies of  those  who  were  brought  into  the  religious 
life  through  her  endeavors,  however  now  they  may  re- 

2K 


546      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

pudiate  her  fellowship  and  offices.  Extraordmary  and 
erratic  declarations  and  doings  have  in  them  a  fascina- 
tion, and  while  the  quiet  daily  routine  of  devotion  may 
pass  unobscured,  the  opposite  challenges  attention  and  by 
its  very  garishness  invites  criticism.  From  its  unavoid- 
able loudness  and  showiness  it  comes  in  a  special  sense 
to  be  for  many  a  distinctive  mark,  if  not  tJic  distinctive 
mark,  of  Christianity,  and  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at, 
as  it  is  not  necessarily  followed  by  any  special  benefits, 
religious  or  moral,  to  the  community,  that  thoughtful 
people  should  hesitate  more  and  more  to  embrace  a 
faith  not  particularly  distinguished  for  its  sanity.  The 
aberrations  and  excrescences  which  have  disfigured  and 
misinterpreted  Christianity  during  the  last  quarter  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  are  in  a  very  large  degree  re- 
sponsible for  the  checks  and  bounds  which  have  arrested 
its  victorious  march.  This  fact  ought  to  be  seriously 
pondered.  If  the  church  is  lame  and  inefficient  where 
her  own  members  are  concerned,  how  can  she  hope  to 
prevail  with  the  community  outside  1  Disregarded, 
flouted,  and,  in  particular  instances,  caricatured  at  home, 
how  can  she  expect  to  be  respected  abroad  t  When  she 
comes  to  realize  that  the  measure  of  her  success  within 
will  determine  the  measure  of  her  success  without,  then 
,the  beginning  of  a  fresh  start  in  her  onward  career  will 
be  made,  and  not  until  then. 

These  depressing  and  disquieting  details  indicate  with 
more  sombre  impressiveness  than  mere  statistics  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  barriers  which  thus  far  the 
church  has  been  unable  to  surmount.  If  it  can  be 
shown  that  I  have  overestimated  their  magnitude  and 
gravity,  I   shall  be  grateful.      I  have  written  according 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  547 

to  my  light,  and  after  the  most  careful  inquiry,  and, 
need  I  add,  with  a  sincere  desire  to  make  out  the  best 
possible  case  for  the  church  consistent  with  my  own  in- 
tegrity. I  have  every  reason  to  place  her  condition  in 
the  most  favorable  light,  and  not  one  to  prompt  the 
least  misrepresentation.  It  may  be  intimated  that  it 
would  have  been  safer  and  more  expedient  to  confine 
myself  to  census  reports  and  figures,  and  not  to  lay 
bare  the  inconsistencies  and  evils  which  impair  her 
strength  and  diminish  her  efficiency.  But  I  beg  leave 
to  suggest  that  we  are  approaching  a  crisis  in  religious 
development,  and  that  to  meet  it  successfully  calls  for 
something  more  than  statistics.  The  church  cannot  re- 
main indefinitely  as  she  is.  It  is  impossible  for  her  hold 
on  the  world  to  increase  or  even  to  continue  by  appeal- 
ing to  past  victories.  She  must  establish  her  right  to 
enduring  power  by  present  and  ever-widening  achieve- 
ments. But  she  will  never  realize  the  importance  of 
new  endeavors  unless  she  is  made  to  feel  the  pressure 
and  understand  the  character  of  existing  limitations.. 
These  heretofore  have  not  been  sufficiently  discussed. 
The  fear  has  been  entertained  that  the  exposures  in- 
volved would  discredit  the  church  irredeemably  in  the 
eyes  of  society.  The  policy  of  silence,  consequently, 
has  been  pursued,  and  multitudes  of  believers  have  been 
hushed  to  sleep  in  a  fool's  paradise.  In  this  conspiracy 
of  illusion  it  is  best  not  to  join,  and  I  have  penned  what 
I  have  that  we  may  be  delivered  from  its  benumbing  in- 
fluence, and  may  see  the  situation  exactly  as  it  is.  This 
is  the  only  safe  course,  this  is  the  wisest  and  most  dig- 
nified policy — if  that  may  be  termed  policy  which  only 
has  in  it  a  straightforward  purpose  to  accomplish. 


548      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

So  much,  then,  in  explanation  and  indication  of  the 
account  here  given  of  church  limitations,  which  now 
must  be  supplemented  by  an  inquiry  into  their  origin, 
an  inquiry  which  will  prepare  the  way  for  the  considera- 
tion of  the  brighter  side  and  for  the  various  recommen- 
dations to  be  presented  in  the  chapter  on  the  religious 
message  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  the  twentieth,  with 
which  this  volume  closes. 

Some  of  the  reasons  assigned  for  the  conditions  I 
have  described  are  extraordinary  in  their  childishness. 
Probably  on  no  other  theme  do  intelligent  people  talk 
and  write  more  confidently  and  with  less  thoughtfulness 
and  precision  than  on  this.  We  are  assured  by  one 
gentleman  that  the  trouble  lies  mainly  with  the  preach- 
ing. He  condemns  the  philosophical  sermon  as  un- 
needed  by  cultured  people  and  as  being  beyond  the  range 
of  the  vulgar.  He  excoriates  the  exegetical  sermon  as 
consisting  in  large  part  of  ''theological  sweepings,"  and 
as  an  insult  to  the  mind,  "which  has  inherited  from  gen- 
erations of  Bible-reading  ancestors  a  sub-conscious  or 
reflex  knowledge  of  the  Bible."  And  he  has  as  little 
patience  with  topical  preaching,  which  he  characterizes 
as  the  sensational  method  of  appealing  to  the  masses. 
He  concedes  that  evangelical  preaching  is  indispensable 
and  to  be  encouraged.  But  he  does  not  explain  its 
merits,  nor  reveal  the  special  charm  of  preaching  that 
is  not  philosophical,  biblical,  or  topical.  He  attaches 
great  importance  to  philanthropy,  and  in  this  he  shares 
with  others  in  the  belief  that  the  success  of  the  church 
has  been  restricted  because  she  does  not  have  a  tramp's 
lodging-house  and  a  wood-yard  in  connection  with  every 
meeting-house.     While  we  cannot  go  so  far  as  this,  we 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  549 

too  hold  that  in  a  sense  the  church  should  be  "  an  insti- 
tution of  benevolence  and  a  haven  of  rest  and  comfort 
for  any  who  are  in  need  of  human  sympathy."  But 
statistics  prove  that  the  ''wood-yard"  scheme  does  not 
in  any  perceptible  degree  fill  up  the  vacant  pews,  neither 
does  it  multiply  Christians,  though  not  unlikely  it  is  pro- 
lific in  paupers.  If  the  business  of  the  church  is  pri- 
marily and  principally  of  an  eleemosynary  character, 
then  from  the  apostles'  day  down  to  very  recent  times 
she  has  been  singularly  deceived  as  to  her  mission. 
She  has  through  most  of  her  history  considered  herself 
a  spiritual  agency,  an  organization  set  apart  for  the  re- 
ligious training  and  quickening  of  mankind,  and,  while 
not  permitted  to  neglect  the  body,  nor  to  decline  to  ad- 
vocate the  cause  of  the  unfortunate,  as  the  one  witness 
appointed  by  God,  to  protest  against  the  usurpations  of 
the  flesh.  And  the  real  issue  at  the  present  hour  is  not 
as  the  "bread  and  butter"  theorists  seem  to  imagine,  to 
account  for  her  failure  to  meet  the  ever-increasing  de- 
mand for  food  and  clothing,  but  to  explain  why,  with  her 
unparalleled  benefactions,  she  is  apparently  unequal  to 
the  task  of  spiritually  renewing  the  masses  of  the  people. 
Hunger  is  removed  by  food,  and  consequently  lack  of 
food  is  the  cause  of  hunger.  But  here  is  a  condition, — 
vacant  pews,  meagre  congregations,  arrested  progress, 
— and  repeated  experiments  have  shown  that  almsgiving 
has  not  been  able  to  change  it,  and  the  logical  inference 
is  that  the  withholding  of  physical  necessaries  is  not  pri- 
marily responsible  for  its  existence.  I  grant,  and  have 
already  so  argued,  that  the  lack  on  the  part  of  the 
church  of  direct  concern  for  the  social  well-being  of  the 
people  is  to  be  censured,  and,  naturally  enough,  impairs 


550      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

her  influence.  But  this  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
the  measures  proposed  by  those  who  would  convert  her 
into  an  agency  for  the  quieting  of  social  discontent 
through  the  administration  of  excessive  bounty.  An 
eminent  philanthropist  not  long  ago  bequeathed  a  large 
sum  to  be  used  by  a  religious  organization  on  behalf  of 
the  poor,  and  running  through  his  last  will  and  testa- 
ment are  expressions  which  warrant  the  conclusion  that 
he  perceived  the  social  discontent  that  exists,  and  be- 
lieved that  the  church  through  liberal  donations  to  the 
indigent  would  be  able  to  repress  its  more  revolutionary 
manifestations,  and  safeguard  the  modern  capitalistic 
system.  But  such  are  not  her  offices.  It  is  not  for  her 
to  deceive  the  people,  nor  for  her  by  a  bribe  in  the  form 
of  food  and  clothing  to  hush  the  reasonable  demands 
for  such  social  conditions  as  contribute  to  the  formation 
of  independent  manhood  ;  and  it  is  not  for  her  to  degrade 
while  she  feeds.  And  if  she  adopts  so  paltry  a  scheme, 
they  whom  she  humiliates  and  degrades,  while  accept- 
ing the  gifts,  will  despise  the  hand  by  which  they  are 
conferred. 

Others  who  attempt  to  account  for  the  existing  re- 
ligious situation  gravely  inform  us  that  it  is  due  to  the 
members  failing  to  shake  hands  with  strangers,  or  to 
the  adoption  of  the  pew  system  for  the  purposes  of 
revenue,  or  to  the  decline  of  pastoral  visitation,  or  to  a 
growing  indisposition  on  the  part  of  Christians  to  talk 
with  sinners,  or  to  the  frequency  with  which  congre- 
gations are  appealed  to  for  pecuniary  assistance.  It 
is  not  easy  to  accept  these  explanations.  What  a 
comment  they  are  on  a  religion  that  is  recognized  as 
proceeding  from    God,  as    containing  in   its    teachings 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  55  I 

the  deepest  and  most  exalted  spiritual  philosophy,  as 
furnishing  the  sinner  an  atonement,  and  as  pledging 
to  the  saint  the  resources  of  infinite  benevolence  for 
his  present  protection  and  future  felicity.  To  think 
that  this  magnificent  moral  marvel  is  arrested  in  its 
stupendous  mission,  or  at  least  is  impeded  and  restrained 
because  hand-shaking  is  not  commonly  practised,  or 
because  clergymen  are  unable  to  tramp,  tramp  from 
house  to  house,  or  because  pews  are  rented,  or  because 
some  other  trivial  conventionalism  prevails,  is  to  think 
what  is  almost  an  inexecusable  msult  to  our  intelli- 
gence. The  idea  that  an  inspired  Faith,  with  the  Might 
of  the  eternities  back  of  it,  should  falter  and  be  dismayed 
in  the  face  of  such  trivialities  is  too  shallow  for  serious 
consideration. 

Of  course,  pastors  should  shepherd  the  flock,  and 
Christians  should  be  cordial  with  each  other  and  with 
strangers,  and  meeting-houses  should  be  made  as  free 
as  possible  to  all ;  but  it  borders  on  the  grotesque 
to  suppose  that  the  destiny  of  such  a  religion  as  Chris- 
tianity is  determined  by  these  or  similar  inferior  and 
subordinate  details.  It  is  possible  that  in  some  lo- 
calities where  they  are  neglected,  and  where  special 
abuses  have  crept  into  church  administration,  the  fail- 
ures we  deplore  are  accentuated  and  intensified.  But 
these  instances  do  not  warrant  a  general  inference  that 
they  reveal  the  real  cause,  operating  throughout  Chris- 
tendom, of  the  limitations  we  have  contemplated.  There 
are  large  congregations  and  remarkable  prosperity 
where  handshaking  is  not  a  means  of  grace  and  is 
practically  unknown,  where  pastors  rarely  visit  save 
among  the  sick  and  dying,  where  pews  are  rented  and 


552      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

rented  at  high  figures,  and  where  hospitable  entertain- 
ment is  given  to  frequent  appeals  for  money.  And 
there  are  other  congregations  that  are  meagre  in  pro- 
portions and  in  a  condition  bordering  on  impecuniosity, 
and  that  are  neither  distinguished  for  conversions  nor 
generosity,  where  the  seats  are  free,  where  effusiveness 
and  hand-grasping  have  had  imparted  to  them  almost 
the  mysterious  efficacy  of  a  sacrament,  where  there  is 
much  labored  talk  about  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  where 
the  minister  wanders  restlessly  from  house  to  house 
and  is  found  everywhere  except  in  his  study.  We  are 
compelled,  therefore,  to  conclude,  that  however  valuable 
these  amenities,  accessories,  and  social  services  may  be, 
as  there  are  frequent  instances  of  flourishing  churches 
where  they  are  not  esteemed  so  highly  as  they  should 
be,  and  as  they  do  not  always  lend  themselves  to  the 
same  results,  the  principal  cause  of  church  failure  must 
be  sought  elsewhere. 

By  not  a  few  skeptical  individuals  it  is  unhesitatingly 
attributed  to  the  growing  intelligence  of  the  age,  which 
indisposes  multitudes  to  accept  the  teachings  of  an 
alleged  supernatural  religion.  This  theory,  however, 
is  hardly  defensible.  It  leaves  out  of  sight  the  fact 
that  a  very  large  proportion  of  those  who  are  unreached 
by  Christian  ministrations  are  not  particularly  en- 
lightened, and  certainly  are  not  better  informed  and 
more  thoughtful  and  acute  than  the  devout  believers  of 
former  times,  or,  indeed,  of  our  own  ;  and  that  numbers 
of  the  educated  and  cultured  are  among  the  foremost 
to  rush  into  the  advocacy  of  the  most  incredible  mar- 
vels, such  as  spiritism,  so  long  as  they  are  not  pro- 
pagated on  the  authority  of  the  Bible.      Moreover,  it  is 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  553 

the  constant  observation  of  clergymen  that,  while  indi- 
viduals may  remain  away  from  the  church,  and  while 
occasionally  they  may  display  a  splenetically  cynical 
mood  when  conversing  on  the  subject  of  religion,  in 
hours  of  supreme  trial  and  suffering  they  more  fre- 
quently than  otherwise  turn  to  God  for  deliverance  and 
comfort.  And  then  it  should  be  remembered  that 
many  of  the  most  intellectual  and  scholarly  men  are  to- 
day sincerely  attached  to  the  great  Faith  symbolized 
by  the  cross.  From  all  of  which  it  follows  that  in- 
creasing intelligence  is  not  responsible  for  whatever  of 
hindrance  checks  the  advance  of  the  church  at  present. 
We  may  concede  all  that  can  reasonably  be  adduced  on 
the  other  side,  and  yet  this  assurance  may  remain  un- 
impaired. And,  if  I  may  presume  to  criticise,  I  fear 
that  hosts  of  people  have  been  encouraged  in  the  re- 
ligious indifference  they  exhibit  by  the  constant  inti- 
mations they  receive  of  their  superior  mental  endow- 
ments and  attainments.  They,  therefore,  assume  a  sub- 
conscious knowledge  of  the  Bible  to  exist,  which  some- 
how rarely,  if  ever,  becomes  conscious,  or  saves  them 
from  pitiable  disclosures  of  their  ignorance  on  sacred 
themes.  They  do  not  study.  They  do  not  realize  the 
need  for  inquiry.  And  my  deliberate  judgment  is  that 
more  people  in  all  classes  of  society  are  alienated  from 
the  church  because  they  are  unacquainted  with  the 
teachings  of  Christ  than  on  account  of  their  superior 
intelligence. 

But  wherefore  the  reluctance  to  take  up  religious 
investigation  ?  Why  should  there  be  hesitancy,  bor- 
dering frequently  on  aversion,  to  the  careful  and  thought- 
ful consideration  of  the  highest  themes.'^     These  ques- 


554      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tions  lead  directly  to  the  main  issue.  For  that  which 
indisposes  the  mind  to  serious  reflection,  and  that 
seems  to  preoccupy  it  also,  doubtless  depresses  the 
spiritual  life,  diverts  attention  from  spiritual  observ- 
ances, and  acts  as  a  poisoning  and  stupefying  atmos- 
phere on  the  world  at  large.  And  what  is  this  dead- 
ening and  subtle  force  ?  How  shall  it  be  named  ?  By 
what  terms  shall  it  be  defined.^  If  we  call  it  the  age- 
spirit,  or  the  overmastering  temper  and  tendency  of  the 
times,  still  we  need  to  know  its  precise  character. 

We  are  taught  by  astronomy  that  our  solar  system 
IS  heliocentric  and  not,  as  formerly  supposed,  geocentric. 
But  in  the  human  social  order  this  is  now  reversed,  and 
the  heliocentric,  which  was  once  dominant,  has  been  sup- 
planted by  the  geocentric.  The  earlier  Christian  cen- 
turies were  overshadowed  by  the  religious  idea,  and 
they  grew  and  were  shaped  by  theories,  aims,  and  schemes 
which  were  supposed  to  be  more  or  less  truly  emana- 
tions from  the  heavens.  God,  Christ,  the  judgment, 
were  rarely  lost  sight  of,  and  these  were  so  often  mis- 
apprehended or  perverted  that  they  became  the  means 
and  inspiration  to  abominations  and  monstrous  cruelties. 
A  reaction  followed  this  extreme,  and  at  times  per- 
nicious, subjection  to  what  was  considered  the  super- 
natural ;  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
earth,  with  its  pursuits,  its  pleasures,  and  prosperity, 
moved  into  the  foreground,  and  the  social  order  from 
that  hour  gradually  became,  what  it  is  to-day,  pre-emi- 
nently geocentric.  This  revolution,  however,  was  not 
the  result  of  infidelity  or  atheism,  but  was  the  simple 
and  natural  effect  of  new  estimates  of  human  dignity 
and   importance,  and   of    mechanical   inventions  which 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  555 

marked  the  birth  of  our  era,  and  which  held  out  the 
promise  of  improved  temporal  conditions  for  all.  The 
masses  then  began  to  perceive  that  they  had  a  heritage 
in  this  world,  and  that  for  the  first  time  its  possession 
appeared  possible.  There  was  no  widespread  defection 
from  Christianity  prompting  onward  to  conquer  earth. 
This  was  not  necessarily  an  irreligious  movement,  al- 
though there  were  parties  who  made  it  the  occasion  of 
demonstrations  against  the  church  and  its  teachings. 
It  was  rather  in  the  main  a  new  appreciation  of  the 
secular,  and  of  the  privilege  of  man,  and  of  his  obliga- 
tion as  well,  to  make  his  present  habitation  as  comfort- 
able as  possible,  and  to  derive  from  it  every  rational 
enjoyment.  The  point  of  view  was  changed.  Instead 
of  living  for  eternity,  men  and  women  began  to  live  for 
time,  believing  that  obligations  fulfilled  on  this  side  of 
death  would  prepare  for  the  rewards  on  the  other.  In- 
stead of  trying  to  enrich  heaven  with  good  works  they 
undertook  to  improve  earth  ;  and  instead  of  estimating 
creeds  and  cults  by  their  alleged  supernatural  origin, 
they  came  to  judge  them  by  their  normal  action  on  the 
natural.  And  thus  was  developed,  not  only  the  geocentric 
order  of  modern  society,  but  the  geocentric  spirit,  which 
in  the  last  analysis  accounts  for  most  of  the  limitations, 
if  not  for  all,  which  have  narrowed  the  successes  of  the 
church  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

It  is  not  hastily  to  be  concluded  that  no  advantages 
have  arisen  from  this  higher  estimate  of  the  temporal, 
or  that  it  is  entirely  alien  to  the  doctrine  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Unquestionably  it  has  lent  itself  to  many  needed  reforms, 
and  has  proven  a  potent  factor  in  bettering  the  environ- 
ments of  slum-submerged  thousands.     Also,  as  we  have 


55^      CHKliSTlAMTY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

shown  in  an  earlier  lecture/  the  Saviour  by  his  social 
teachings  refutes  the  calumny  that  he  despised  the  pres- 
ent world,  would  have  his  disciples  despise  it,  and  made 
no  provision  for  its  improvement.  What  he  did  was  to 
protest  against  its  being  made  everything,  and  supreme 
as  a  motive  and  ambition  in  the  conduct  of  life,  not  to 
deride  it,  or  rage  against  it  after  the  style  of  the  ancho- 
rites. The  error  of  earlier  times  lay  in  making  it  noth- 
ing; the  error  of  the  present  lies  in  making  it  too  much. 
In  both  instances  the  true  sense  of  fitting  proportions 
and  relationships  is  obscured  or  confused.  The  spiritual 
and  moral  are  of  supreme  importance,  and  what  we 
shall  eat  or  drink  or  wear  of  inferior  moment ;  but  these 
things  have  also  in  them  a  value  not  to  be  scorned. 
To  harmonize  and  blend  the  demands  of  the  two,  and 
to  terminate  their  seeming  antagonisms,  ought  to  be 
the  chief  business  of  philosophers  and  prophets ;  and 
when  this  end  has  been  achieved  the  perfect  civilization 
will  have  been  attained.  But  in  the  meanwhile,  earth, 
by  a  most  extraordinary  vagary,  has  eclipsed,  partially  at 
least,  the  sun  on  which  it  depends  for  life  and  light. 
The  secular  is  in  the  ascendency,  and  not  as  a  premed- 
itated revolt  against  the  Faith  of  the  Cross,  but  as 
the  outcome  of  sudden  visions  of  temporal  prosperity 
and  happiness,  which  have  charmed  and  bewildered 
multitudes,  and  which  for  the  time  being  have  come  to 
be  rated  higher  than  the  spiritual.  It  is  hardly  gracious 
to  heap  unmeasured  blame  on  the  infatuated  masses. 
The  world  for  ages  has  been  to  the  overwhelming  ma- 
jority a  very  inhospitable  place;  and  now  that  means 
have  been  provided  for  its  improvement,  and  the  people 

^  Section  V.,  "The  Social  Awakening  of  the  Church." 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  55/ 

generally  are  free  to  use  them,  indignation  may  well 
restrain  itself  if  excited  multitudes  rush  pell-mell  onward, 
forgetful  of  everything  else,  in  their  intense  desire  to 
obtain  their  share  of  possible  temporal  blessings.  To 
save  them  from  the  fanaticism  of  secularism  is  a  mani- 
fest duty ;  but  in  view  of  the  bitter  past,  when  their 
frenzy  for  earthly  gain  and  good  is  criticised,  the  criti- 
cism may  well  be  tempered  with  commiseration. 

The  geocentric  spirit,  from  the  standpoint  of  Chris- 
tianity, cannot  be  commended,  and  can  only  be  counte- 
nanced when  it  is  brought  into  subjection  to  those  re- 
strictions which  were  imposed  on  it  by  Christ  himself; 
for  to  its  undue  indulgence  we  are  compelled  to  attribute 
the  various  discouraging  aspects  of  church  endeavor  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  Its  prevalence  explains  in  no 
small  degree  why  so  many  thousands  of  people  never  or 
rarely  enter  the  house  of  God.  Multitudes  are  exhausted 
by  the  unnatural  strain  they  are  under  during  the  week, 
and  when  Sunday  comes  they  have  not  energy  suffi- 
cient to  meet  its  sacred  requirements.  Not  a  few  are 
compelled,  by  what  are  regarded  as  the  exigencies 
of  the  new  civilization,  to  work  on  the  day  which  a 
gracious  Providence  appointed  from  the  beginning  for 
rest.  Others,  when  released  from  toil,  plead  that  they 
should  recuperate  their  physical  energies  on  Sunday 
by  excursions  into  the  country,  or  by  the  enjoyment  of 
innocent  diversions.  To  supply  the  entertainments,  to 
keep  open  the  shops,  and  to  furnish  means  of  convey- 
ance and  newspapers  for  reading,  call  for  an  army  of 
laborers,  who  in  their  turn  are  deprived  of  the  blessings 
which  come  from  Sunday  observance.  In  this  way 
throngs  of  people  are  kept  busy,  and  the  example  set 


558      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

leads  many  persons,  who  need  no  rest  and  never  do 
anything  to  cause  them  fatigue,  to  demand  a  respite 
from  everything  like  church  services.  And  it  likewise 
tends  to  make  professors  of  religion  less  scrupulous  as 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  Lord's  Day  is  kept. 

Back  of  all  these  neglects  and  perversions,  and  ade- 
quately accounting  for  them,  there  is  the  evident  im- 
pression that  the  claims  of  earth,  of  business,  of  material 
interests,  are  foremost,  and  ought  not  to  be  set  aside  even 
for  a  few  hours  by  those  of  a  different  order,  though 
they  may  assume  to  be  paramount.  So  anxious  is  the 
average  man  to  obtain  possession  of  the  present  world, 
so  imperative  does  he  regard  the  obligation  to  secure 
what  he  can  of  its  resources,  that  he  will  tax  himself  so 
seriously  as  to  unfit  him  for  religious  functions,  and  will 
not  hesitate  to  set  aside  a  divine  ordinance  if  he  imag- 
ines it  impedes  his  temporal  prosperity.  This  is  written 
without  any  intention  of  sanctioning  the  extreme  Sab- 
batarian views  of  seventeenth  century  Puritans.  The 
author  knows  very  well  that  their  views  were  not  coun- 
tenanced by  the  fathers  of  '*  the  blessed  Reformation," 
English  or  Continental ;  that  they  were  not  advocated 
by  the  Confession  of  Augsburg;  that  Cranmer  con- 
sidered every  approach  to  them  as  the  appointments 
only  of  the  civil  magistrate ;  and  that  Calvin  thought  so 
little  of  them  that  he  used  to  play  bowls  at  Geneva  on 
Sunday.  But  one  excess  does  not  justify  another.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  we  should  sanction  superstitious 
traditions,  when  we  plead  for  a  decent  observance  of  the 
Lord's  Day ;  for  such  an  observance  as  shall  relieve  the 
people  from  the  exacting  cares  of  toil,  as  shall  restore 
to  the  weary  world  the  consciousness  of  spiritual  reali- 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  559 

ties,  and  afford  the  needed  opportunity  to  seek  God  in 
his  courts  and  to  share  in  the  blessedness  of  solemn 
worship.  And  when  the  community  shall  again  realize 
the  value  of  this  recognition,  then  we  shall  hear  less  and 
less  of  neglected  sanctuaries,  and  more  and  more  of  glad 
multitudes  thronging  the  churches  of  Jesus  Christ. 

To  this  earth-spirit  may  also  be  traced  much  that  is 
unattractive  in  the  religious  life  of  to-day.  Family 
prayers  are  not  abandoned  because  confidence  is  lost  in 
their  efficacy,  but  because,  as  a  rule,  the  head  of  the 
house  has  no  time,  or  imagines  that  he  has  none,  for 
their  reverent  presentation.  Business  is  absorbing, 
early  engagements  must  be  kept,  and  he  rushes  down 
town  without  first  seeking  the  divine  blessing  on  his 
home.  He  justifies  himself  after  the  manner  of  his  age, 
pleading  that  competition  is  so  great  and  trade  interest 
so  imperative  that  he  cannot  afford  the  time  to  gather 
wife  and  children  around  the  altar,  apparently  oblivious 
to  the  fact  that  he  is  thus  unconsciously  recognizing  the 
right  of  this  world  to  supreme  consideration.  With 
this  homage  to  the  temporal  in  his  heart,  it  is  not  hard 
to  understand  why  he  tries  to  make  his  church  tributary 
to  its  over-lordship.  Thus  governed,  he  and  many  with 
him,  convert  the  meeting-house  into  a  kind  of  aristo- 
cratic assembly  room,  where  the  poor  are  not  wanted 
lest  they  mar  the  social  prestige  of  the  elect  ;  while 
others,  feeling  the  effect  of  the  same  principle,  are  re- 
luctant to  give  of  their  means  lest  they  deprive  them- 
selves of  worldly  comforts  and  worldly  distinctions. 
Here,  likewise,  we  have  an  explanation  of  the  com- 
mercialism that  has  wrought  so  much  mischief  in  the 
modern  church.      The  possession  of  money  often  deter- 


560      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

mines  the  importance  of  its  members.  Money,  or  rather 
lack  of  it,  is  more  responsible  than  anything  else  for 
brief  pastorates  ;  and  the  value  attached  to  it  is  the  cause 
why  an  equivalent  for  it,  in  refreshments  or  fancy  goods, 
is  so  often  exacted  when  large  sums  have  to  be  secured 
for  special  objects.  Moreover,  the  distinctions  which 
grow  out  of  varying  degrees  of  wealth  and  the  extraor- 
dinary veneration  it  inspires  is  somewhat  fatal  to 
genuine  humility.  The  rich  man,  if  he  has  no  wish  to 
assert  himself,  is  so  deferred  to  by  his  brethren  in  his 
church,  that  he  can  scarcely  fail  to  feel  a  trifle  lifted  up. 
He  is  tempted  to  have  his  own  way ;  and  then  poorer 
people  to  show  that  they  are  as  good  as  he  is  will  strive 
to  have  theirs,  and  when  they  can  acquire  conspicuity 
in  no  other  manner,  affect  perfection  or  the  advocacy 
of  some  peculiar  and  startling  fad.  Often  in  profess- 
ing singular  unworldliness  these  persons  are  only  reveal- 
ing a  type  of  very  offensive  worldliness.  They  seek 
and  acquire  notoriety,  if  not  distinction,  by  their  method, 
.and  become  the  center  of  curious  wonder-seekers ;  and 
like  some  so-called  "  divine  healers  "  recently  exposed, 
make  out  of  their  proposed  heavenly  gifts  a  remarkably 
handsome  earthly  income.  And  thus  much  that  is 
grotesque  and  ludicrous,  childish  and  foolish,  priggish 
and  pragmatical,  in  churches  grows  out  of  the  hold  that 
geocentricism  has  upon  their  members. 

This  tyranny  of  the  earthy  also  is  responsible  for  the 
vacillating  policies,  the  hesitancy  to  condemn  public 
wrongs,  and  the  subserviency  of  many  modern  ecclesi- 
astics to  the  whims  and  wishes  of  imperialistic  demigods. 
**  To  get  and  to  hold"  is  the  watchcry  of  this  strenu- 
ous age,  and  nothing  deterred  by  the  commandment  of 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  56 1 

Christ,  the  church  here  and  there  writes  it  over  her 
altars  and  enshrines  it  in  her  schemes  and  ambitions. 
She  too,  in  a  larger  sense  than  is  generally  appreciated, 
is  in  the  vulgar  scramble  for  riches  and  honors,  and  is 
setting  the  seal  of  her  approval  on  what  not  inappro- 
priately may  be  called  the  Gospel  of  Mannerism.  How 
anxious  she  is  to  secure  government  patronage  and 
pecuniary  assistance.  With  what  courtier-like  fawning 
she  is  conveniently  silent  when  outrages  are  being  per- 
petrated by  the  ruling  classes,  and  with  what  silvery 
eloquence  she  palliates  war  and  excuses  the  rapacious- 
ness  of  factions  and  combinations.  Has  she  not  been 
promised  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  and  all  the  glory 
of  them,  and  why  should  she  be  too  scrupulous  and  de- 
cline to  worship  the  devil  just  a  trifle,  especially  as  he 
calls  himself  an  "  Angel  of  Light,"  when  by  so  doing 
she  can  all  the  more  speedily  gain  her  own  .''  She  does 
not  apparently  perceive  that  when  she  does  this  she 
loses  her  hold  on  parties,  on  rulers,  on  kings,  who  mock 
at  her  affected  sanctity,  and  pursue  their  own  way  in 
utter  contempt  of  the  noble  principles  which  Christ  pro- 
claimed, and  which  she  is  supposed  to  represent.  And 
when  certain  of  the  denominations,  like  the  Quakers, 
Baptists,  and  Congregationalists,  protest  against  being 
degraded  by  her  mercenary  sycophancies,  society  ridi- 
cules them,  rebukes  them  for  lack  of  sagacity,  and  scorns 
them  as  being  behind  the  age.  And  then  we  wonder 
at  her  limitations,  and  institute  grave  inquiries  into 
the  causes  which  have  operated  against  her  achieving 
more  unrestricted  successes  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
In  writing  in  this  way  I  am  not  charging  personal  greed 
on  her  great  officials  ;   I  am  only  showing  that  she  too 

2L 


562      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

is  swept  away  by  the  spirit  of  the  age,  is  swayed  by  it,  is 
submerged  by  it,  and  that  in  seeking,  like  all  the  rest,  to 
gain  the  world  for  herself,  she  impairs  her  power  of  pro- 
test against  many  pernicious  and  corrupt  practices  which 
are  debasing  and  disgracing  modern  civilization. 

With  secularistic  ideals  and  visions  in  the  ascendency 
and  charming  mankind  it  is  easy  to  understand  the  com- 
parative failure  of  the  church  to  elevate  politics,  purify 
art,  and  to  restrain  the  encroachments  of  debilitating 
luxury.  To  obtain  the  upper  hand,  to  rule,  to  bear 
sway,  to  occupy  the  chief  seats  of  distinction  and  au- 
thority— when  such  ambitions  are  sanctified  by  the 
accepted  philosophy  of  life,  ordinary  moralities  do  not 
count  for  much  and  are  readily  swept  aside.  If  political 
parties  are  not  usually  straightforward,  scrupulous,  and 
consistent,  and  if  they  are  commonly  tricky,  shifty,  and 
insincere,  it  is  always  to  be  remembered  that  they  are 
only  following  in  the  wake  of  public  sentiment,  and, 
like  many  others,  are  mainly  striving  for  their  own 
success  and  not  primarily  for  their  country's  good,  al- 
though it  must  be  admitted  that  they  have  the  happy 
faculty  of  esteeming  everything  that  falls  out  to  their 
own  advantage  as  necessarily  conducive  to  the  well- 
being  of  their  country.  Thus,  also,  some  prominent 
corporations  and  trusts  have  a  way  of  identifying  the 
national  prosperity  with  their  own  increasing  gains,  and 
then  of  persuading  themselves  that  it  is  purely  in  the 
interests  of  patriotism  that  they  spend  millions  to  secure 
the  election  of  those  who  by  tariffs  and  special  legisla- 
tion will  protect  and  favor  their  particular  interests. 
Nor  are  the  leaders  of  these  great  commercial  combina- 
tions  to   be   regarded   as  necessarily  worse   than  their 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  563 

contemporaries.  In  many  instances  they  are  morally 
the  peers  of  their  harshest  critics,  and  are  walking  hon- 
estly according  to  their  light.  But  the  fault  is  with  the 
light  on  which  they  rely  and  by  which  they  shape  their 
conceptions  of  duty.  It  is  earthborn,  not  heavenly ; 
and  may  be  likened  rather  to  the  Aurora,  which  accord- 
ing to  Dalton  and  Fusinieri,  is  a  terrestrial  phenomenon 
due  to  the  circulation  of  the  magnetic  fluid  around  the 
globe,  rather  than  to  the  shining  of  the  sun.  If  this 
world  is  the  foremost  thing,  if  not  everything,  is  it  not 
excusable  to  strain  a  point  that  its  possession  may  be 
secured  as  promptly  as  possible  ?  And  if  it  is  only 
right  that  its  claims  should  overshadow  and  eclipse  the 
demands  of  every  other  conceivable  world,  ought  we  not 
to  fit  it  up  as  comfortably  as  we  can,  crowd  it  with 
attractions,  and  fill  it  with  the  most  exquisite  delights  .-* 
Why  not  convert  it  into  a  veritable  '' Palace  of  Art," 
and  be  guided  by  the  significant  suggestions  of  Tenny- 
son ? 

I  built  my  soul  a  lordly  pleasure  house, 
Wherein  at  ease  for  aye  to  dwell, 

I  said,   "O  Soul,  make  merry  and  carouse. 
Dear  soul,  for  all  is  well  ! ' ' 

To  which  my  soul  made  answer  readily  : 
"Trust  me,  in  bliss  1  shall  abide 
In  this  great  mansion,  which  is  built  for  me, 
So  royal — rich  and  wide." 

Many,  even  multitudes,  are  thinking  if  not  speaking  in 
this  way,  and  being  human  and  being  governed  by  their 
senses,  they  are  not  satisfied  with  hallowed  joys,  but 
crave  the  beautiful,  the  sensuously  beautiful.  They 
are  not  content  with  the  ecstasy  described  by  the  poet  : 


564      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

O  all  things  fair  to  sate  my  various  eyes, 
O  shapes  and  hues  that  please  me  well, 

O  silent  faces  of  the  Great  and  Wise, 
My  Gods,  with  whom  I  dwell. 

Something  more  is  craved  and  sought.  Man,  under  the 
spell  of  a  theory  which  has  almost  acquired  the  indis- 
putable authority  of  an  axiom,  and  which  incites  him  to 
make  the  most  of  this  present  world,  instinctively  infers 
that  he  is  free  to  gratify  his  nature,  and  as  he  is  not  all 
spirit,  he  seeks  through  some  refined  means  (though 
not  too  refined)  to  gladden  the  animal  that  is  a  part  of 
himself.  And  that  the  thrills  of  pleasure  conventionally 
forbidden  may  not  be  wholly  untasted,  and  that  the 
delirium  of  the  senses  may  not  be  entirely  unknown, 
he  inclines  to  foster  a  literature,  a  drama,  an  art,  which 
are  very  far  from  being  as  "  chaste  as  ice  "  or  ''  as  pure 
as  snow."  Deep  down,  therefore,  in  the  carnal  soul  of 
civilized  communities  are  to  be  found  the  roots  of  this 
luxurious  and  rank  vegetation,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
allied  to  the  <' fair  humanities,"  but  whose  leaves  are 
not  for  the  healing  of  the  nations.  And  the  atmos- 
phere in  which  it  flourishes,  and  without  which  it  would 
sicken  and  die,  is  that  very  false  philosophy,  which,  like 
the  poisonous  vapors  of  the  Avernian  lake  in  the  Roman 
Campagna,  is  fatal  to  a  nobler  and  sweeter  growth.  This 
is  also  the  atmosphere  that  rests  as  a  death-pall  on  the 
whole  of  modern  life,  that  impedes  the  very  breath  of 
religion,  and  that  paralyzes  the  energies  of  the  church 
and  imposes  limitations  on  her  many  activities. 

The  explanation  thus  given  of  one  of  the  most  curi- 
ous and  solemn  problems  of  the  century — why  organized 
Christianity,  having  wrought  so  many  beneficent  won- 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  565 

ders  has  not  wrought  more  ;  why,  having  advanced  so 
far,  she  has  not  advanced  farther ;  and  why  her  suc- 
cesses have  always  come  short  of  completeness — carries 
with  it  the  reasonable  and  inevitable  inference  that  the 
anomaly  can  only  be  brought  to  an  end  by  the  removal 
of  its  cause.  Various  measures  may  be  proposed,  of 
more  or  less  value,  for  the  relief  of  the  church  from  her 
embarrassment  and  for  the  removal  of  obstacles  from 
the  path  of  her  progress.  Some  such  remedies  have 
already  been  alluded  to,  but  none  of  them,  however  ad- 
mirable and  desirable,  can  accomplish  more  than  a  par- 
tial and  local  improvement  unless  they  are  fitted  to 
restore  the  spiritual  to  its  supreme  place  in  the  affairs 
of  life.  By  cheap  contrivances  devised  by  the  acute  and 
astute  sensationalist,  or  by  the  genuine  eloquence  of  the 
brilliant  preacher,  chapels  and  meeting-houses  may  be 
crowded  to  the  point  of  discomfort,  and  newspapers  may 
assure  a  credulous  public  that  at  last  the  masses  are 
reached;  but  if  to  these  throngs  the  secular  is  still  fore- 
most, and  if  even  in  the  sanctuary  they  have  not  escaped 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  temporal,  the  gain,  after  all,  is 
not  very  encouraging,  and  does  not  promise  any  wide- 
spread resuscitation  of  power.  The  transformation  must 
be  more  radical  and  comprehensive  than  this.  We  need 
to  know  how  the  present  bondage  may  be  brought  to  an 
end,  how  the  age  may  be  emancipated  from  its  too  great 
infatuation  with  the  things  of  time  and  sense,  and  how 
the  church  herself  may  rise  from  the  low  levels  of 
earthly  ambitions  and  desires. 

Nothing  short  of  this  will  suffice.  I  am  sure  that 
Count  Leo  Tolstoy  perceives  this,  and  intends  to  show 
forth   this  conviction  in  his  last  novel.      He  therefore 


566      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

portrays  a  dead  world,  a  dead  church,  a  dead  soul,  and 
sets  over  against  this  decay  and  rottenness  the  startling 
declaration  of  Christ  :  "  I  am  the  resurrection  and  the 
life."  The  resurrection  !  yes,  that  is  the  need,  the  im- 
perative demand,  the  indispensable  marvel,  without 
which  the  glory  of  the  future  will  be  more  and  more  the 
glory  of  the  grave.  St.  Paul  in  his  day  strove  that  he 
might  attain  to  "  a  resurrection  out  from  among  the 
dead  "  ;  and  the  same  agony  of  desire  must  now  possess 
God's  people,  not  only  for  themselves  but  for  others,  if 
the  coming  century  is  to  witness  the  final  triumph  of 
the  Cross.  In  this  persuasion  the  late  Prof.  Alexander 
Balmain  Bruce  thought  and  wrote.  He  too  saw  clearly 
the  futility  of  the  ordinary  means  advocated  and  relied 
on  for  the  purpose  of  transcending  the  present  limita- 
tions of  church  success.  The  power  and  spell  of  the 
world  he  realized  must  be  broken.  How  this  could  be 
done  was  a  subject  that  frequently  occupied  his  mind, 
and  in  his  last  work  he  brought  his  reflections  on  what 
is  thus  essential  to  a  close,  and  in  a  few  sentences, 
which  fittingly  may  be  quoted  as  we  pass  to  the  final 
chapter  of  this  volume,  wherein  we  are  to  take  note  of 
the  many  assuring  tokens  of  religious  prosperity  and 
set  over  against  the  relative  failures  of  Christianity  her 
manifold  and  magnificent  successes,  he  clearly  indicated 
what  must  be  done  to  secure  deliverance: 

From  all  this  it  would  seem  to  follow  that  the  path  of  progress 
for  the  future  must  lie  along  the  lines  of  Christ's  teaching  ;  that 
the  least  thing  men  who  seek  the  good  of  our  race  can  do  is  to 
make  themselves  heirs  to  the  thoughts  of  Jesus  concerning  God, 
man,  the  world,  and  their  relations,  and  work  these  out  under 
modern  conditions.      Reversions  to  the  things  behind  is  surely  a 


THE    OBSTRUCTIONS    AND    OPPOSITIONS  56/ 

mistake.  No  good  can  come  of  a  return  with  Schophenhauer  to 
the  pessimistic  despair  of  Buddhism,  or,  with  other  modern 
thinkers,  to  the  duahsm  of  Zoroaster,  or,  under  the  sturdy  leader- 
ship of  a  Huxley,  to  the  grim,  defiant  mood  of  Stoicism.  Such 
movements  are  to  be  regarded  as  excusable  but  temporary  reac- 
tions, and  the  Christian  attitude  is  to  be  viewed  as  that  which 
must  gain  more  and  more  the  upper  hand. 


XII 
THE  PAST  AND  FUTURE 


Though  hearts  brood  o'er  the  Past,  our  eyes 

With  smiUng  Futures  ghsten  ; 
For  lo  !  our  day  bursts  up  the  skies  ! 

Lean  out  your  souls  and  hsten  ! 
The  world  is  rolling  Freedom's  way, 

And  ripening  with  her  sorrow  ; 
Take  heart  !  who  bear  the  Cross  to-day 

Shall  wear  the  Crown  to-morrow. 

—  Gerald  Massey. 

Despair  not  thou  as  I  despair' d 

Nor  be  cold  gloom  thy  prison  ! 
Forward  the  gracious  hours  have  fared, 

And  see  !  the  sun  is  risen  ! 

He  breaks  the  winter  of  the  past ; 

A  green  new  earth  appears. 
Millions,  whose  life  in  ice  lay  fast, 

Have  thoughts  and  smiles  and  tears. 

What  though  there  still  need  effort,  strife  ? 

Though  much  be  still  unwon  ? 
Yet  warm  it  mounts,  the  hour  of  life  ! 

Death's  frozen  hour  is  done. 

—Matthew  Arnold. 


XII 


THE    RELIGIOUS    MESSAGE    OF    THE    NINETEENTH    CEN- 
TURY   TO    THE    TWENTIETH 

Final  words  are  usually  impressive,  and  thoughtful 
people  with  reverence  pause  to  receive  a  parting  message 
from  the  dying.  But  when  the  strength  is  failing,  and 
the  poor  lips  are  quivering,  the  communication  may  be 
somewhat  indistinct,  and  may  need  for  its  interpretation 
the  kindly  offices  of  one  who  has  intimately  known  and 
has  closely  watched  the  expiring  saint  or  sage.  Familiar 
with  his  life,  acquainted  with  his  peculiarities,  under- 
standing his  beliefs  and  principles,  such  a  friend  is  fitted 
to  take  up  his  almost  incoherent  words  and  broken  sen- 
tences, and  putting  them  together,  construct  for  the 
serious  listener  the  warnings  he  would  convey  and  the 
comfort  he  would  impart.  A  similar  service  it  is  my 
desire  to  render  the  old  century,  now  almost  gone,  inar- 
ticulate, and  nearly  dead.  It  may  not  be  possible  to 
catch  the  precise  meaning  of  the  feeble  whisperings  of 
the  present  hour,  but  recalling  the  movements  of  the 
past  hundred  years,  their  failures  and  triumphs,  their 
losses  and  gains,  with  the  changes  they  have  brought 
to  society  and  the  church,  it  ought  not  to  be  surpass- 
ingly difficult  to  make  out  their  real  significance. 

Schiller  declares  that 

Often  do  the  spirits 
Of  great  events  stride  on  before  the  events, 
And  in  to-day  already  walks  to-morrow. 

571 


5/2      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

And  a  certain  school  of  rationalists  insists  that  what  we 
usually  regard  as  prophetism  in  the  Scriptures  is  not  at 
all  vaticinal  in  character,  but  only  an  accurate  discern- 
ment of  the  logical  connection  between  that  which  is 
and  that  which  necessarily  is  to  be.  As  the  mariner 
from  long  experience  may  be  qualified  to  forecast  the 
morrow's  w^eather,  so,  it  is  claimed,  the  Hebrew  seer, 
from  the  gathering  clouds  accumulated  around  the  po- 
litical horizon,  could  easily  foresee,  the  moral  universe 
being  as  precisely  ordered  as  the  material,  what  of  dis- 
tress and  doom  must  inevitably  follow  a  nation's  degen- 
eracy. 

While  I  do  not  believe  the  facts  warrant  us  in  ex- 
cluding the  other  and  higher  form  of  vaticination  from 
the  predictions  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  I  am 
prepared  to  concede  that  they  and  others  may  have 
been  able  to  see  the  foreshadows  of  future  events  in 
what  was  taking  place  around  them,  and  to  speak  of 
their  approach  in  terms  of  assurance  and  confidence. 
And  had  we  sagacity  enough,  and  could  we  comprehend 
the  nature  and  bearing  of  all  the  forces  that  have  been 
operative  in  the  history  of  the  past  hundred  years,  we 
likewise  could  draw  aside  the  curtain  and  reveal  to  your 
astounded  gaze  the  transcendent  achievements  and 
transforming  developments  of  the  new  age,  whose  birth- 
throes  are  now  exciting  the  solicitude  of  a  doubting 
world.  To  such  wisdom  as  this  we  do  not  lay  claim, 
nor  can  we  ''look  into  the  seeds  of  time,  and  say  which 
grain  will  grow  and  which  will  not."  Our  ofhce  is  one 
of  far  less  pretentiousness.  It  is  not  for  us  to  anticipate 
the  coming  years,  nor  to  presume  that  we  are  able  to  cast 
a  horoscojDe  of  their  varying  fortunes.      But  if  from  the 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  5/3 

Stars  we  cannot  surely  le-arn  what  is  to  be,  we  may  at 
least  from  them  mfer  what  ought  to  be ;  and  if  from 
their  shining  and  their  position  in  the  heavens  we  can- 
not derive  a  prophecy,  we  can  at  least,  with  some  degree 
of  certainty,  deduce  a  lesson  for  our  immediate  guidance. 
And  if  we  dare  not  attempt  to  trace  the  outlines  of  the 
"to-morrow"  that  already  walks  in  the  "to-day,"  we  still 
may  venture  to  interpret  the  changes,  admonitions,  and 
encouragements  which  are  being  whispered  by  the  latter 
in  the  ear  of  the  former,  and  convey  with  some  degree 
of  accuracy  the  religious  message  of  the  nineteenth 
century  to  the  twentieth. 

The  preliminary  or  preamble,  so  to  speak,  of  this 
message,  breathes  a  triumphant  spirit,  and  dwells  on 
the  hopefulness  of  the  present  outlook.  Christianity 
was  never  more  extended  than  she  is  now,  her  outposts 
were  never  farther  from  her  center,  and  her  circum- 
ference was  never  so  vast.  If  there  are  some  signs  of 
heart-failure  where  vitality  should  be  strongest,  and 
if  here  and  there  are  traces  of  wasting  tissue,  still 
the  continued  aggressiveness  and  the  constant  expan- 
siveness  of  the  Faith  warrant  the  most  optimistic  ex- 
pectations. Those  of  our  readers  who  recall  the 
dreary  and  depressing  prospects  that  confronted  the 
church  a  hundred  years  ago,  if  they  will  only  contrast 
with  those  dark  times  the  brightness  of  the  present  hour, 
will  perceive  that  she  has  not  only  gained  in  power  and  in- 
fluence, but  has  conquered  for  herself  a  position  fruitful 
in  unmeasured  possibilities.  Then  she  was  but  enter- 
ing on  her  missionary  operations  ;  then  she  was  but  in- 
augurating her  numberless  benefactions  ;  but  now  she 
is   the   greatest  of   all    imperialisms,  girding   the  globe 


574      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

with  a  broad  zone  of  light ;  and  now  she  witnesses  the 
flowering  of  her  philanthropy  in  the  radiant  hues  and 
sweet  fragrance  of  modern  humanitarianism,  which,  how- 
ever, unhappily  often  ignores  or  denies  the  roots  whence 
it  sprang.  The  Boden  Professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Oxford 
has  recently  assigned  Christianity  the  foremost  place 
numerically  among  the  religions  of  the  world.  He 
states  that  Buddhism  has  only  one  hundred  million  ad- 
herents, and  not  four  hundred  millions  as  has  hitherto 
been  supposed.  In  a  higher  class  he  places  Confu- 
cianism and  then  Hinduism,  and  lower  still  Mohamme- 
danism, and  between  the  two  last  named,  Buddhism.^ 
But  over  and  above  the  highest  he  ranks  the  Christian 
Faith,  which  is  still  multiplying  its  converts,  while  other 
religions  give  evident  tokens  of  decay.  In  1800  the 
total  number  of  Christians  in  the  world  was  set  down 
at  about  two  hundred  millions  ;  in  1900  the  grand  total 
exceeds  five  hundred  millions.^ 

During  die  nearly  ten  centuries  of  abnost  exclusive  papal  do- 
minion Christianity  gained  only  about  eighty-five  millions.  Since 
the  birth  of  Protestantism,  a  period  about  one-third  as  long,  it 
has  gained  nearby  six  times  as  much.  And  since  the  great  re- 
ligious quickening  of  Protestantism  under  the  Wesleys  and  White- 
field  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  it  has  gained  three  hun- 
dred and  forty-five  millions. 

It  is  also  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection,  and 
perhaps  as  indicative  of  future  religious  predominance, 
that  two  centuries  ago  there  were  only  thirty-two  mil- 
lions in  the  population  of  the  whole  world  under  Prot- 
estant governments  ;  now  there  are  five  hundred  and 

^  Alkander,  "  Epist.  of  St.  John."    Expository  Bible,  p.  no. 
^  See  Tables  in  IJorchester's  "  Religious  Progress,"  pp.  649,  650. 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  575 

tvvent}^  millions.  Then  Roman  Catholic  rulers  had 
three  times  as  many  subjects  as  Protestant  governors, 
but  now  they  have  less  than  half  as  many.  The  New 
York  ''  Independent  "  throws  much  light  on  Christian 
progress  in  the  United  States  by  its  carefully  prepared 
statistical  information  lately  given  in  its  columns.  From 
this  we  gather  that  the  approaching  census  will  proba- 
bly fix  the  population  of  the  country  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  seventy  millions,  being  a  gain  of  eight  millions 
in  ten  years  or  about  thirteen  per  cent.  The  census  of 
1890  reported  a  church-membership  of  twenty  million 
six  hundred  and  tweve  thousand  eight  hundred  and  six  ; 
the  estimate  now  is  that  this  year,  1900,  it  will  number 
twenty-seven  million  seven  hundred  and  ten  thousand 
and  four,  a  gain  of  over  seven  millions,  or  about 
thirty-four  per  cent.  These  figures  may  not  be  altogether 
reliable,  but  probably  it  will  be  found  that  the  propor- 
tion of  increase  will  be  confirmed,  and  the  ratio  of 
thirty-four  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  church's  growth  as 
against  thirteen  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  country's  in- 
crease in  population,  will  be  maintained.  This  showing 
on  the  whole  is  very  encouraging,  and  indicates,  not- 
withstanding deplorable  mistakes  and  failures,  that 
Christianity  is  a  growing  and  advancing  power  in  the 
world. 

But  there  are  other  tokens  of  prosperity  and  progress. 
Among  these  I  rank  the  tendency  toward  the  demo- 
cratic principle  in  church  government.  During  the 
century,  almost  imperceptibly,  the  lay  element  has 
gained  in  influence  even  within  hierarchical  commun- 
ions. The  representative  councils  of  the  great  de- 
nominations   are    becoming    less    and    less    exclusively 


576      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

clerical  in  their  constituency  and  control.  Doctor  Wace, 
the  principal  of  King's  College,  London,  a  few  months 
ago  read  a  very  striking  paper  before  a  church  congress, 
in  which  he  showed  that  the  dissenting  bodies  in  Eng- 
land had  multiplied  their  membership  immensely  during 
the  last  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  that  they  were 
now  in  *' a  position  numerically  very  considerably  ad- 
vanced in  comparison  with  the  Church  of  England  "  ; 
and  looking  abroad,  and  taking  in  the  whole  outside 
field,  he  said  that  he  found  something  less  than  three 
and  a  half  millions  of  English  Church  communicants 
to  more  than  seventeen  millions  of  Free  Church-mem- 
bers. These  statements  confirm  what  I  have  said  re- 
garding the  present  drift.  While  the  spirit  of  episco- 
pacy has  advanced  in  liberality,  and  while  its  laymen 
are  being  more  and  more  charged  with  responsibility, 
there  seems  to  be  a  deepening  dislike  for  everything 
resembling  clericalism,  however  tempered  by  consider- 
ate concessions. 

Congregationalism  is  in  the  ascendency,  that  is,  it  is 
gaining  in  favor  ;  and  though  there  are  many  forces 
operating  against  it,  still,  in  my  opinion,  to  it  belongs 
the  future.  This  is  rendered  more  probable  by  the 
ever-enlarging  sphere  of  activity  open  to  women  in 
modern  Christianity.  Mrs.  Fawcett  has  been  helping 
the  cause  of  the  progress  of  women  by  her  enlight- 
ened discussions  of  the  value  to  them  of  academic  ad- 
vantages. In  one  of  her  recent  public  addresses  she 
recalled  the  fact  that  two  hundred  years  ago  Defoe 
pleaded  for  such  educational  privileges  as  would  tend 
to  make  a  wife  a  real  companion  for  her  husband  ;  and 
that  a  hundred  years  later  Sidney  Smith  advocated  the 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  577 

same  cause.  But  since  then,  what  wonderful  advances 
have  been  made.  Were  we  discussing  the  great  social 
changes  of  the  nineteenth  century,  we  would  find  here 
a  most  notable  theme.  We  would  show  the  new  and 
exalted  position  gained  by  women  in  education,  in  liter- 
ature, in  art,  in  business,  and  in  reform.  But  these 
domains  lie  beyond  the  scope  of  our  present  under- 
taking. It  is,  however,  a  source  of  gratification  to  re- 
cord that  the  progress  of  woman  within  the  church  has 
kept  pace  with  her  emancipation  beyond  its  limits.  She 
was  never  more  actively  or  more  freely  engaged  on  be- 
half of  Christ's  kingdom  than  at  this  hour  ;  and  never 
did  she  have  so  potent  a  voice  in  the  direction  of  its  affairs 
as  now.  She  is  foremost  in  temperance  reform  ;  she  is 
the  chief  inspiration  in  Sunday-school  work  ;  she  is  the 
leading  force  in  philanthropy  ;  and  she  is  more  closely 
allied  to  parish  work  as  deaconess,  missionary,  or  pas- 
tor's assistant,  than  ever  in  the  past,  unless  we  except 
the  apostolic  and  sub-apostolic  periods.  Does  not  this 
prominence  forecast  yet  greater  and  graver  opportuni- 
ties for  the  exercise  of  her  devotion  in  the  future  ? 
And  as  these  open  before  her,  and  the  burden  of  re- 
sponsibility becomes  heavier,  will  she  not  have  a  right 
to  demand,  and  Christian  men  have  no  right  to  refuse, 
a  part  in  the  direct  control  of  the  church  ?  In  some 
denominations  this  she  already  enjoys  ;  but  in  others, 
and  ultimately  in  all,  or  at  least  in  those  where  she 
presses  forward  and  makes  herself  felt  as  a  power  for 
good,  must  she  be  accorded  an  equal  place  with  man  in 
the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  That  is,  in 
the  nature  of  things,  her  enlargement  and  advancement 
make  for  the  final  triumph  of  the  congregational  principle. 

2M 


57^      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

As  tending,  likewise,  in  the  same  direction,  wit- 
ness the  startling  freedom  of  thought  and  of  criticism 
on  religious  subjects  now  so  common  among  laymen. 
They  do  not  hesitate  to  have  opinions  of  their  own  on 
such  vexed  questions  as  the  inerrancy  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  they  are  less  disposed  than  formerly  to  accept  their 
faith  without  question  on  the  authority  of  their  spiritual 
guides.  Nor  is  this  independence  restricted  to  Protes- 
tant communions.  Occasionally  it  asserts  itself  even 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  A  striking  illustration 
of  its  prevalence  we  have  in  the  revolt  of  St.  George 
Mivart  against  the  non  possuinus  of  Cardinal  Vaughan, 
which  will  come  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  sig- 
nificant episodes  in  contemporaneous  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. The  eminent  scientist,  who  is  himself  a  Catholic, 
published  articles  in  the  ''  Nineteenth  Century  "  and 
the  ''  Fortnightly,"  maintaining  that  a  good  Catholic 
can  be  a  higher  critic  and  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a 
rationalist.^  This  leads  the  "Tablet,"  which  is  under 
the  control  of  the  cardinal,  to  take  Doctor  Mivart  to 
task  for  his  views,  and  this  is  done  in  so  coarse  a  way 
as  to  call  forth  from  the  assailed  this  spirited  protest  : 

As  grace  supposes  nature,  so  before   I    am  a  Catholic  I  am  an 

English  gentleman,  and  in  that  capacity  I  have  been  grossly  out- 

' raged.     The  foul,    vulgar,    brutal  personalities  of  the  "Tablet," 

charging  me  with    cowardice  and  willful,  calumnious  mendacity, 

are  such  that  no  man  with  a  particle  of  self-respect  could  tolerate. 

The  cardinal  straightway  sends  to  the  layman  a  profes- 
sion of  faith  with  the  command  that  it  must  be  signed 

^  Professor  Mivart  was  still  living  when  these  words  were  uttered.  His 
revolt,  in  the  interests  of  truth,  renders  his  death  all  the  more  to  be  la- 
mented. 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  579 

and  the  published  articles  be  reprobated.  To  this  the 
layman  replies  that  he  must  be  assured  that  the  '*  in- 
spiration and  authorship  of  Holy  Scripture,"  which  he 
is  required  to  acknowledge,  "  does  not  guarantee  the 
truth  and  inerrancy  of  the  statements  so  inspired." 
But  his  eminence  will  not  yield.  *'  This  is  to  return  to 
the  old  Protestant  system  of  private  judgment,"  he 
writes,  "  sign  and  recant."  St.  George  answers  back, 
"  I  categorically  refuse  to  sign  the  profession  of  faith  "  ; 
and  in  the  London  <'  Times  "  writes  : 

A  vast  and  impassable  abyss  yawns  between  Catholic  dogma  and 
science,  and  no  man  with  ordinary  knowledge  can  henceforth  join 
the  communion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  if  he  correctly 
understands  what  its  principles  and  its  teachings  really  are,  unless 
they  are  radically  changed. 

The  cardinal  repeats  the  non  possnmus, — your  position 
cannot  be  allowed, — and  enforces  it  by  suspension  or 
excommunication  ;  but  fortunately  for  the  professor  he 
cannot  add  emphasis  to  bis  decree  by  handing  him  over 
to  the  civil  power.  The  incident  probably  is  closed, 
unless  Doctor  Mivart  shall  see  fit  by  and  by  to  recant. 
But  his  brave  defiance  indicates  that  others  besides 
Protestants  are  claiming  the  right  of  private  judgment, 
and  that  even  its  occasional  exercise  within  the  papal 
jurisdiction  points  unmistakably  to  the  gradual  emanci- 
pation of  the  laity  from  priestly  dominance  and  to  the 
final  adoption  of  the  congregational  principle.  And  I 
regard  this  trend  as  wholesome  and  promising,  because 
history  has  shown,  and  particularly  the  history  of  the 
last  hundred  years,  that  in  proportion  as  church  author- 
ity and  power  are  taken  from  the  few  and  committed  to 
the  many,  and  the  more  a  people  can  be  persuaded  to 


580      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

take  part  in  the  conduct  of  religious  affairs,  the  purer 
and  sweeter  the  administration  becomes,  and  the  less 
liable  to  a  repetition  of  those  tortuous  policies  and  gross 
crimes  which  have  done  so  much  to  discredit  ecclesiasti- 
cal government  in  former  times. 

This,  however,  is  only  one  among  other  signs  that 
the  present  outlook  for  Christianity  is  both  assuring 
and  flattering.  Full  of  promise  is  the  fact  that  the 
Christian  nations,  particularly  the  Protestant  countries, 
are  the  most  affluent  and  the  most  enterprising.  The 
wealth  they  have  accumulated  is  simply  enormous. 
"  Great  Britain  is  by  far  the  richest  nation  of  the  Old 
World,"  and  yet  the  United  States  excelled  her  in  this 
respect,  ten  years  ago,  by  three  hundred  million  dollars. 
"  The  wealth  of  the  United  States  is  phenomenal.  In 
1880  it  was  valued  at  forty-three  billion  six  hundred 
and  forty-two  million  dollars;  more  than  enough  to  buy 
the  Persian  and  the  Turkish  empires,  the  kingdoms  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark  and  Italy,  together  with 
Australia,  South  Africa,  and  all  South  America."  Thus 
wrote  Rev.  Josiah  Strong  in  ''Our  Country  "  (1885)  ; 
but  the  astounding  figures  he  gives  must  have  grown 
into  almost  incredible  proportions  within  the  last  fifteen 
years.  But  the  civilized  world  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  the  great  republic  has  not  been  idle  or  unproductive, 
and  consequently  there  are  ampler  resources  at  the  dis- 
posal of  mankind  for  humane  and  religious  purposes 
than  ever  before.  The  munificent  gifts  of  million- 
aires, like  Carnegie,  Rockefeller,  Peabody,  Sir  Moses 
Montefiore,  Baron  Hirsch,  and  others  equally  generous, 
for  the  establishment  of  libraries,  the  founding  of  schools, 
the   housing   of    the  poor  and  relieving  the   suffering, 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  58 1 

and  the  devotion  of  her  money  by  Miss  Helen  Gould  to 
the  loftiest  patriotic  services,  go  far  toward  proving 
that  these  resources  have  not  been  accumulated  in  vain. 
Doctor  Strong  shows  that  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  wealth 
amassed  in  the  United  States  is  owned  by  professed 
Christians.  This,  however,  I  believe,  is  an  underesti- 
mate, for  let  us  never  forget  that  the  Christian  popula- 
tion constitutes  the  least  wasteful  and  the  most  frugal 
and  saving  of  our  citizens.  More  likely  the  followers  of 
our  Lord  in  America  control  one-third  of  the  nation's 
wealth,  and  adding  to  them  the  immense  mass  of  people 
who  sympathize  with  evangelical  religion,  together  with 
their  spiritual  kindred  in  Europe,  the  totality  must 
represent  a  financial  power  quite  beyond  the  ability  of 
all  the  heathen  religions  combined  to  match,  a  power 
practically  capable  of  carrying  to  a  successful  issue  the 
most  gigantic  undertakings. 

The  difference  between  the  churches  of  to-day  in  this 
respect  and  the  churches  of  a  hundred  years  ago  is 
almost  incalculable.  At  that  time,  what  with  French 
Revolutions  and  Napoleonic  wars,  Europe  was  on  the 
verge  of  insolvency,  and  every  benevolent  enterprise  was 
reduced  to  sore  embarrassment.  The  question  then 
was :  Where  shall  money  be  found  to  maintain  the  per- 
manent institutions  of  society  and  supply  the  actual 
necessaries  of  life  ?  Poverty  was  chronic,  and  even 
many  of  the  great  families  in  the  old  world  were  dis- 
tressed for  lack  of  means.  Suffering  was  excessive, 
and  relief  was  narrowed  by  the  meagre  revenues  of  the 
various  European  nations.  And  yet,  with  depleted 
treasuries,  and  confronted  by  financial  difficulties,  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  distinguished 


582      CHRISTIANITV    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

by  the  inauguration  of  the  most  ambitious  Christian 
projects.  It  was  then  that  the  conquest  of  the  world 
for  Christ  was  undertaken,  and  it  was  then  that  societies 
were  multiplied  for  the  evangelization  of  England  and 
America,  and  much-needed  reforms  were  commenced 
for  the  general  improvement  of  society.  But  if  these 
great  enterprises  could  be  successfully  launched  in  the 
dark  days  of  monetary  depression,  now  that  the  gloom 
has  passed  away,  and  the  means  at  the  disposal  of  the 
churches  have  become  abundant,  what  achievements  are 
there  that  cannot  be  accomplished  }  If  so  much  could 
be  attempted  on  so  little,  why  should  not  more  be  tri- 
umphantly effected  in  this  period  of  unexampled  pros- 
perity ?  The  nineteenth  century  is  saying  to  the  twen- 
tieth : 

I  was  born  poor  ;  I  die  rich,  and  my  vast  estates  descend  to  you. 
All  the  property  I  have  accumulated  at  a  cost  of  untold  anxiety, 
labor,  and  anguish,  I  leave  for  you  to  manage  and  administer. 
You  will  find  that  it  represents  sufficient  wealth,  if  wisely  employed, 
and  not  squandered  away  on  war,  vice,  and  idle  pomp,  to  transform 
society  and  evangelize  the  world.  Great  is  your  opportunity,  great 
also  your  responsibility.  No  century  before  you  began  its  career 
with  so  many  advantages,  none  were  the  masters  of  such  revenues, 
and  none  confronted  a  future  so  charged  with  momentous  possi- 
bilities. 

And  it  may  be  added  that  never  before  was  the  world 
so  prepared  for  the  labors  of  future  reformers  and 
Christians.  It  has  enjoyed  a  century  of  education,  and 
is  more  than  ever  responsive  to  the  needs  and  sufferings 
of  humanity.  Gradually  it  has  been  trained  to  feel  with 
increasing  keenness  for  the  woes  of  mankind,  and  it  has 
been  taught  to  appreciate  the  rights  and  to  defend  the 
liberties  of  all.      "Within  a  few  years  one  hundred  and 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  583 

eighty  millions  of  Europeans  have  risen  from  a  degraded 
and  dissatisfied  vassalage  to  the  ranks  of  free,  self-gov- 
erning men,  and  one  of  their  earliest  concerns  has  been 
to  provide  the  means  of  universal  education."  ^  This 
itself  is  a  most  hopeful  sign,  and  indicates  that  the  door 
is  open  wider  than  ever  for  Christianity  to  prosecute 
successfully  her  gracious  mission.  To  her  influence  as 
revealed  in  the  VVesleyan  revivals,  Professor  Green,  the 
historian,  attributes  much  of  the  transformation  through 
which  society  has  passed  since  then,  saying  that  this 
revival  gave  rise  to 

A  steady  attempt,  which  has  never  ceased  from  that  day  to  this, 
to  remedy  the  guilt,  the  ignorance,  the  physical  suffering,  the  so- 
cial degradation  of  the  profligate  and  the  poor.  .  .  The  Sunday- 
schools  established  by  Mr.  Raikes,  at  Gloucester,  at  the  close  of 
the  century,  were  the  beginnings  of  popular  education.  By  writings 
and  by  her  own  personal  example,  Hannah  More  drew  the  sym- 
pathy of  England  to  the  poverty  and  crime  of  the  agricultural 
laborer.  A  passionate  impulse  of  human  sympathy  with  the 
wronged  and  afflicted  raised  hospitals,  endowed  charities,  built 
churches,  sent  missionaries  to  the  heathen,  supported  Benke  in 
his  plea  for  the  Hindu,  and  Clarkson  and  Wilberforce  in  their 
crusade  against  the  iniquity  of  the  slave  trade. '-^ 

That  is,  Christianity  has  been  instrumental  in  thus  re- 
fining and  humanizing  the  world,  a  claim  conceded  by 
Carlyle,  Lecky,  and  Martineau,  and  thus  has  opened  the 
way  for  yet  farther  and  nobler  endeavors  in  the  new  age 
on  which  we  are  entering.  She  has  created  an  atmos- 
phere congenial  to  her  aspirations  ;  she  has  awakened 
expectations  and  sympathy  by  her  acknowledged  suc- 
cesses ;  and  she  is  invited  by  the  most  favoring  condi- 

1  Dorchester,  "Problem  of  Religious  Progress,"  p.  460. 
2  "History  of  English  People,"  Vol.  IV.,  p.  273. 


584      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

tions  to  concentrate  afresh  her  forces  on  the  evils  that 
yet  hinder  the  complete  emancipation  of  mankind.  It 
is  not  for  her  to  be  discouraged  and  despondent.  She 
is  thresholding  unquestionably  an  exacting  and  wonder- 
ful epoch  ;  but  there  is  every  reason  for  her  to  believe 
that,  if  true  to  herself,  she  will  be  equal  to  every  emer- 
gency. 

Auspicious  is  this  hour.  It  is  a  morning  radiant  with 
the  glory  of  a  brilliant  day.  Let  us  not  lose  heart.  The 
old  century  reproves  all  disconsolate  fancies  and  rebukes 
our  wayward  fears.  It  bids  us  contemplate  fields  ripe 
unto  the  harvest,  and  with  its  dying  accents  whispers, 
''hope."  No  one  knew  better  its  history,  and  no  one  was 
better  fitted  to  interpret  its  significance,  than  the  late 
Sir  William  Dawson,  and  we  may,  therefore,  accept  his 
optimistic  confession  as  voicing  this  part  of  the  message 
which  the  past  is  addressing  to  the  future : 

"  I  do  not  take  a  pessimistic  view  of  things,"  he  writes.  "  In 
my  time  I  have  seen  so  many  abuses  rectified,  so  many  great  evils 
overthrown,  and  so  much  done  for  the  material  and  spiritual  wel- 
fare of  humanity,  that  I  look  forward  to  better  things  to  come.  I 
think  many  things  now  antagonistic  to  Christianity  will  share  the 
fate  of  similar  things  in  the  past.  At  the  same  time,  there  are 
dangers  ahead  that  may  lead  to  great  catastrophes  for  the  time 
being.  Yet  somehow  good  seems  to  come  out  of  great  wars  and 
other  evils.  The  dangers  that  just  now  appear  to  threaten  the 
world  from  political  and  military  causes  do  not  alarm  me,  because 
I  have  seen  so  many  things  come  on  like  storms,  pass  away,  and 
leave  good  behind.  I  am  certainly  prepared  to  testify  that,  all  the 
time  I  have  been  in  it,  the  world  has  really  been  advancing  both 
in  the  removal  of  great  evils  and  in  the  propagation  of  truth  and 
light.  The  future  is  in  the  hand  of  God,  and  we  may  trust  in 
him,  more  especially  on  his  work  through  our  divine  Saviour  and 
the  Holy  Spirit." 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  585 

But  the  message  is  not  wholly  congratulatory.  It  is 
wider  in  its  range  and  more  serious  in  its  import.  De- 
riving wisdom  from  its  varied  experiences  of  success 
and  failure,  the  nineteenth  century  counsels,  admonishes, 
forewarns,  in  terms  of  the  profoundest  conviction.  What 
the  burden  of  its  testimony  is,  as  far  as  religion  is  con- 
cerned, religious  people  may  well  gravely  ponder,  for  it 
involves  and  discloses  the  specific  obligations  that  press 
upon  them  with  the  dawning  of  a  new  era.  In  the  words 
of  Lowell  it  reminds  us  : 

New  times  demand  new  measures  and  new  men  ; 
The  world  advances,  and  in  time  outgrows 
The  laws  that  in  our  fathers'  days  were  best. 

But  what  are  these  measures  and  these  laws  which 
should  determine  the  activities  of  Christianity  in  the 
coming  years  } 

They,  first  of  all,  exact  that  she  shall  do  her  own 
work,  and  shall  not  render  it  necessary  or  possible  for 
outside  agencies  to  usurp  her  functions,  while  she  occu- 
pies herself  with  the  infinitely  meagre  and  petty.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  of  late  many  things  that  ought  to  have 
been  done  by  churches  have  devolved  on  other  societies, 
and  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  churches  have  not 
seen  fit  to  attempt  their  performance.  In  several  great 
cities  we  have  heard  of  committees  being  formed  and  of 
organizations  being  shaped  for  the  purpose  of  restrain- 
ing corruption,  maintaining  law  and  order,  and  sup- 
pressing social  wrongs  and  social  vices.  Other  associa- 
tions have  been  created  to  look  after  tempted  young 
men  and  women,  to  succor  the  destitute  and  friendless, 
and  to  advance  the  ethical  interests  of  society.     It  is 


586      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

not  denied  that  many  Christian  people  are  directly  en- 
listed in  behalf  of  these  important  movements,  or  that 
they  derive  their  very  existence  from  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity. But  the  natural  feeling  is  that  the  churches 
themselves  ought  to  undertake  the  reforms  contem- 
plated, and  that  in  failing  to  do  so  they  impair  their  own 
dignity  and  influence.  Why  have  they  been  established 
if  not  to  make  the  world  better  ?  Why  should  they  ex- 
ist at  all  if  they  are  not  to  grapple  with  these  very  prob- 
lems and  difificulties  which  appeal  to  reputable  citizens 
as  demanding  thoughtful  attention  }  Surely  this  very 
business  is  their  business,  and  if  they  were  attending  to 
it  strictly,  they  would  find  employment  for  the  highest 
gifts  within  their  reach,  and  very  soon  would  render  it 
unnecessary  for  many  among  the  most  intelligent  of 
their  members  to  seek  in  men's  clubs  and  women's  clubs 
a  means  of  doing  something  for  the  public  good.  As  it 
is,  not  a  few  cultivated  and  broad-minded  Christians  drift 
into  various  fellowships  where  they  think  opportunities 
are  afforded  for  the  exercise  of  their  business  abilities 
not  furnished  by  the  churches.  They  have  a  practical 
turn,  and  prefer  to  devote  themselves  to  such  endeavors 
as  call  for  sagacity,  tact,  and  personal  energy.  Preach- 
ing is  not  their  forU,  and  even  Sunday-school  teaching 
is  not  in  their  line  ;  but  they  could  render  valuable  service 
on  a  commission  to  repress  vice,  to  preserve  social  order, 
or  to  purify  the  franchise.  They  have  no  particular  in- 
terest in  church  parties,  and  are  indisposed  to  engage  in 
the  trivial  disputes  over  choirs,  ice-cream  and  strawberry 
festivals,  sewing-circle  small  talk  and  scandals,  and  the 
various  minor  details  of  church  life  which  seem  to  fas- 
cinate so  many  pious  souls.      Looking  on  the  religious 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  587 

world  they  see  so  much  prominence  given  to  little,  trivial 
things  that  they  lose  heart.  They  wish  it  were  other- 
wise. But  it  is  not,  and  they  are  dissatisfied.  And  in 
the  meanwhile  the  outside  community  judges  that  Chris- 
tianity is  narrow,  inefficient,  and  unequal  to  her  mission, 
occupying  her  people  with  many  matters  of  inferior  mo- 
ment instead  of  concentrating  their  energies  on  the 
higher  and  more  important  phases  of  her  work.  And 
this  hesitancy  gives  rise  to  acrid  criticisms,  and  extenu- 
ates, if  it  does  not  justify,  such  a  summing  up  as  Mr. 
Hensley  Henson  pens  in  a  recent  volume,  when  he  says  : 

The  Jew  in  the  nineteenth  century  rehearses  the  miserable  for- 
tune of  the  Huguenot  in  the  eighteenth.  The  architects  of  infamy 
are  the  same,  and  once  more  Christ  has  to  find  his  champions  out- 
side his  own  camp.  A  Zola  now  (as  a  Voltaire  then)  stands  forth 
and  undertakes  the  challenge.  .  .  Continually  the  ecclesiastical 
conscience  lags  behind  the  general  sense  of  right  and  the  Lord's 
battles  are  won  by  unrecognized  warriors.^ 

Such  a  reproach  as  this  must  become  impossible  in 
the  future,  if  Christianity  is  to  maintain  her  hold  on 
strong  and  thoughtful  men,  She  must  not  wait  for  a 
Zola  to  defend  and  succor  those  whom  she  should 
befriend.  When  she  realizes  this  ;  and  when  she  shall 
decline  pusillanimously  to  stand  aside,  while  self-con- 
stituted committees  press  forward  to  overcome  evils 
she  was  founded  to  assail  ;  and  when  she  shall  cease 
to  find  satisfaction  and  occupation  in  '*  trifles  light  as 
air,"  such  as  have  engaged  the  attention  of  too  many 
Catholic  and  Protestant  churches,  the  former  wasting 
their  energies  on  questions  concerning  rites  and  cere- 
monies, and   the   latter  in   chatter  on   trumpery  social 

^  '*  Thoughts  for  Critical  Times  in  the  Church." 


588      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ambitions — then  she  will  draw  to  herself  a  much  larger 
percentage  of  the  masculine  portion  of  society,  and  will 
be  more  than  ever  venerated  by  the  masses  of  mankind. 
But  as  long  as  not  a  few  of  her  representatives  can  find 
nothing  nobler  or  more  worthy  of  their  prowess  than  to 
exhaust  the  vocabulary  of  denunciation  against  smok- 
ing, dancing,  and  friendly  societies  ;  and  when  they  by 
their  various  conventions  create  the  impression  that 
they  are  more  solicitious  for  their  own  perfection  than 
for  the  advantage  of  a  sin-stricken  race  ;  her  fair  name 
will  be  damaged,  and  her  influence  over  intelligent, 
earnest  people  be  diminished.  The  nineteenth  century 
reminds  the  twentieth  that  it  needs  a  religion  that  will 
rise  to  the  level  of  its  great  opportunities,  and  becom- 
ing prophetic,  she  sees  the  desired  change  I  have  urged 
as  actually  realized  in  the  Christianity  of  to-morrow,  and 
breaks  forth  into  a  strain  of  exultation  fittingly  voiced 
by  the  immortal  words  of  Milton  : 

Methinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puissant  nation  rousing 
herself  like  a  strong  man  after  sleep,  and  shaking  her  invincible 
locks  ;  mediinks  I  see  her  as  an  eagle  mewing  her  mighty  youth, 
and  kindling  her  undazzled  eyes  at  the  full  midday  beam  ;  purg- 
ing and  unsealing  her  long-abused  sight  at  the  fountain  itself  of 
heavenly  radiance  ;  while  the  whole  noise  of  timorous  and  flock- 
ing birds,  with  those  that  love  the  twilight,  flutter  about,  amazed 
at  what  she  means,  and  in  their  envious  gabble  would  prognosti- 
cate a  year  of  sects  and  schisms.' 

Such  a  nation  must  Christianity  make  herself,  and 
when  she  shall  merge  into  this  exalted  State,  while 
doubting  souls  may  be  apprehensive  and  fear  that  de- 
votion to  works  greater  than  those  which  Christ   per- 

^  "The  Areopagitica." 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  589 

formed  may  cause  a  falling  away  of  the  timid  and  the 
purblind,  she  shall  steadily  advance  in  majesty  and  might. 
But  if  she  is  thus  to  advance  she  must  also  have  re- 
gard to  a  condition  of  success  which  the  last  hundred 
years  have  brought  into  singular  prominence.  She 
must  not  only  do  her  own  work,  but  she  must  restrict 
herself  to  it,  and  not  attempt  to  do  the  work  of  other 
institutions ;  or,  in  other  terms,  she  must  specialize. 
This  rule  is  now  followed  by  the  leaders  of  industry 
and  commerce,  and  by  the  chiefs  of  science  and  pro- 
fessional life.  No  one  man,  and  no  particular  order  of 
men,  can  do  everything,  any  more  than  they  can  know 
everything.  They  can  pretend  as  much  as  they  like  ; 
but  the  larger  their  pretensions,  the  more  consummate 
sciolists  and  bunglers  they  will  probably  prove  to  be. 
Society  demands  experts,  and  will  not  tolerate  in  serious 
vocations  indexterity  and  unproficiency.  The  divisions 
and  sub-divisions  of  pursuits  v/hich  now  prevail,  and 
which  did  not  exist  three  or  four  generations  ago,  con- 
tribute undoubtedly  to  greater  exactness  and  efificiency  ; 
and  the  principle  they  involve  is  as  applicable  to  religion 
as  to  any  other  sphere  of  thought,  feeling,  or  activity. 
Why  should  a  church  assume  to  decide  what  is  scien- 
tific and  what  is  not  ?  Why  should  she  feel  capable  of 
determining  the  true  methods  of  secular  education,  or 
of  dictating  the  policies  of  national  and  international 
administrations  .?  By  what  divine  canon  is  she  called 
on  to  become  an  expounder  of  art,  music,  and  poetry  ? 
Who  gave  her  such  infallible  wisdom  that  she  can  de- 
cide every  moot  point  in  philosophy  and  psychology 
without  any  particular  preparation,  and  teach  specialists 
their  specialties  though  confessedly  herself  untaught  ? 


590      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

The  nineteenth  century,  out  of  many  humiliating 
experiences,  admonishes  Christianity  not  to  expect  the 
twentieth  to  be  so  tolerant  as  it  has  been  of  this  pre- 
sumption. The  old  century  does  not  question  the  right 
and  duty  of  Christianity  to  insist  on  ethical  instruc- 
tion in  the  schools,  to  protest  against  the  moral 
degradation  which  sometimes  overtakes  the  aesthetical 
world,  and  to  promote  honesty,  honor,  and  dignity  in 
political  affairs  ;  but  these  legitimate  functions  are 
overdone  when  she  busies  herself  with  those  phases 
of  education,  art,  and  government  which  can  only  be 
adequately  treated  by  experts.  Stubbs,  in  his  "  Con- 
stitutional History,"  says:  "The  Church  cannot  en- 
gross the  work  of  education  without  some  danger  to 
liberty ;  the  State  cannot  engross  it  without  some 
danger  to  religion  ;  the  work  of  the  Church  v^dthout 
liberty  loses  half  its  value ;  the  State  without  religion 
does  only  half  its  work."  That  is,  religion  has  to  do 
with  instruction  on  its  ethical  side,  and  on  that  side  she 
ought  to  speak  with  authority,  while  recognizing  that 
there  is  another  on  which  the  qualified  and  equipped 
pedagogue  has  a  right  to  speak  with  authority  also.  With- 
in her  own  eminent  domain  she  is  mistress,  but  nowhere 
else.  If  she  does  well  and  thoroughly  what  is  expected 
of  her  there,  she  will  challenge  the  admiration  and  ven- 
eration of  enlightened  humanity.  But  if  she  seems  to 
be  a  constant  meddler  in  outside  spheres  of  thought, 
officiously  interfering  with  what  only  remotely  concerns 
her,  sedulously  caring  for  other  men's  vineyards  while 
neglecting  her  own,  the  failures  we  have  had  to  deplore 
will  continue  to  be  repeated  and  the  final  triumph  of 
the  Cross  be  indefinitely  delayed. 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  59 1 

What  then  is  this  specialization  which  Christianity 
represents  and  to  which  she  should  devote  herself  ? 
The  answer,  in  brief,  is,  the  spiritual ;  and  this  involves 
the  ethical.  It  is  for  her,  like  the  prophet  Elisha,  to 
open  the  eyes  of  those  who  judge  by  sight,  that  the 
vision  may  be  theirs  of  the  invisible  chariots  and  horse- 
men of  Jehovah  that  move  unseen  about  us  through  the 
material  universe.  Hers  is  the  sublime  task  of  keeping 
the  veil  uplifted  that  discloses  the  Infinite  and  Eternal ; 
of  kindling  on  the  altar  of  the  soul  the  sacred  fires  that, 
consuming  the  dross  of  our  natures,  send  heavenward 
our  holiest  thoughts  and  aspirations.  It  is  her  business 
to  preserve  clear  of  all  obstructions  the  narrow  straits 
and  channels  through  which  the  immortal  part  in  man 
may  daily  approach  the  presence  of  God,  and  to  dis- 
perse the  clouds  of  earthly  unbelief  which  continually 
obscure  the  silver-lit  boundaries  where  the  waves  of 
this  life  are  arrested  by  the  mystic  shores  and  head- 
lands of  the  other.  She  is  herself  the  connecting  link 
between  the  terrestrial  and  celestial,  the  meeting-place 
of  the  tides,  where  the  divine  and  human  interblend  ; 
the  very  source  and  spring,  like  the  great  equatorial 
current  which  gives  rise  to  the  gulf  stream,  of  that 
broad  and  mysterious  influence  which  sweeps  onward 
through  the  ocean  depths  of  worldliness,  and  preserves 
the  earth  from  the  glacial  blight  of  atheism  and  despair. 
And  when  she  retains  this  consciousness,  and  when  it 
is  manifest  in  what  she  says  and  does,  then  to  the  world 
she  herself  becomes  the  very  ladder  seen  by  Jacob  in 
his  vision  connecting  earth  with  heaven,  and  on  which 
the  angels  of  God  are  ceaselessly  ascending  and  de- 
scending.     But  when  she  is  perpetually  busy  with   tem- 


592      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

poralities,  striving  to  obtain  territories,  like  any  greedy 
commonplace  power,  and  when  she  seeks  recognition  in 
every  secular  pursuit,  then  her  real  and  special  mission 
is  lost  sight  of  by  herself  and  others,  and  in  a  little 
while  becomes  utterly  distasteful. 

This  the  history  of  the  nineteenth  century  has  fre- 
quently illustrated  ;  and  in  guarding  the  twentieth  from 
its  baneful  repetition,  Christianity  is  called  on  to  learn 
this  much  from  the  present  age — that  she  can  never  be 
her  best  nor  do  her  best  unless  she  specializes,  that  is, 
unless  she  concerns  herself  almost  exclusively  with 
spiritual  worship,  spiritual  culture,  and  spiritual  service. 

Worship  is  indispensable  to  the  religious  life.  It  is 
the  soul's  homage  to  the  ideal  perfection,  it  is  the  soul's 
acknowledgment  of  the  realization  of  the  ideal  in  the 
Supreme  and  Infinite  Reality ;  and  it  is  the  soul's  atti- 
tude of  welcome  and  receptivity  to  every  sacred  im- 
pression emanating  from  the  unseen.  Worship  brings 
the  creature  to  the  throne  of  the  Creator;  it  delivers 
him  from  bondage  to  things  of  time  and  sense,  and 
makes  actual  to  him  the  divine  possibilities  of  his  own 
being.  When  he  has  become  estranged  from  its  offices, 
privileges,  and  sweet  experiences,  this  world  necessarily 
engrosses  his  thought,  and  gradually  there  fade  away, 
and  leave  him  cold  and  hard,  those  once  cherished  be- 
liefs which  exalted  him  to  fellowship  with  "  the  glorious 
army  of  martyrs,"  with  the  "  goodly  fellowship  of  proph- 
ets," and  inspired  him  with  the  transforming  hope  of 
immortality.  Therefore,  the  decadence  of  worship  always 
has  marked  the  decline  of  the  religious  spirit,  and  always 
will.  As  well  expect  to  be  physically  strong  without 
the  renewal  derived  from  food  and  rest,  as  to  be  spirit- 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  593 

ually  vigorous  without  the  heavenly  manna  and  the 
repose  that  proceeds  from  adoring  contemplation  of  the 
Everlasting  Mystery.  And  never  do  worthy  and  good 
people  more  decisively  reveal  the  limitations  of  their 
wisdom  than  when  they  talk  slightingly  of  church  serv- 
ices, of  praise  and  ''  common  prayer,"  and  insinuate 
that  these  are  superfluous,  and  that  they  may  be  neg- 
lected altogether  without  special  detriment  to  the  re- 
ligious life.  Such  sentiments,  more  or  less  vaguely 
expressed,  have  gained  considerable  ground  of  late,  and 
account  in  some  degree  for  the  vacant  seats  in  many 
sanctuaries.  Ruskin,  we  are  told,  was  chilled  and  de- 
pressed by  the  absence  of  the  beautiful  and  impressive 
from  worship  as  conducted  in  a  poor  dissenting  meet- 
ing-house, and  went  out  into  the  night,  where  beneath 
the  stately  stars  his  soul  could  hold  communion  with 
God.  But  the  average  man  is  not  a  Ruskin,  and  will 
be  more  readily  helped  even  by  crude  attempts  of  hum- 
ble people  like  himself  to  find  their  way  to  heaven's 
throne  than  by  all  the  constellations  that  make  mag- 
nificent the  vaulted  sky.  I  cannot  conceive  of  anything 
more  damaging  to  the  spiritual  life  of  a  community  than 
the  effort  persistently,  though  often  covertly,  made  to 
undervalue  the  benefits  derivable  from  attendance  on 
church  services.  This  iterated  and  reiterated  deprecia- 
tion, not  only  tends  to  drive  the  soul  from  the  altar  of 
public  devotion,  but  induces  a  painful  apathy,  a  religious 
lethargy,  which  checks  private  prayer,  inclines  to  skep- 
ticism, and  not  infrequently  ends  in  spiritual  insolvency. 
So  vitally  necessary  is  worship,  that  Christianity 
should  spare  no  pains  in  rendering  it  in  every  way  wor- 
thy of  the  Being  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  and  in  every 

2N 


594      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

way  helpful  to  those  by  whom  it  is  offered.  The  insoiLci- 
aiice  often  manifested  in  the  house  of  God,  even  by  some 
of  the  professed  followers  of  Christ,  the  upright  bodies 
and  open  eyes  in  prayer,  the  listless  attempts  at  praise 
or  the  positive  unwillingness  to  join  in  sacred  song, 
surely  must  be  taken  as  signs  of  irreverence  and  indif- 
ference, and  as  vitiating  the  homage  which  avowedly  is 
being  paid  to  the  Most  High.  As  homage  of  this  soul- 
less kind  is  not  creditable  to  the  creature,  very  likely  it 
is  not  acceptable  to  the  Creator  ;  and  if  such  worshipers 
fail  to  receive  a  blessing  and  a  quickening,  it  is  because 
evidently  they  have  no  particular  desire  for  either.  The 
last  twenty-five  years  have  witnessed  an  increase  of  this 
undevout  mood,  conspicuously  in  several  metropolitan 
centers,  and  perhaps  more  distinctively  in  America  than 
in  Europe.  It  is  imperative  that  it  should  go  no  farther. 
Probably  it  has  been  encouraged  by  the  flighty  and  ex- 
travagant estimates  which  have  been  placed  on  man's 
genius  and  power  of  late,  and  the  relatively  meagre 
attention  which  has  been  bestowed  on  the  Divine  attri- 
butes and  gracious  sovereignty.  The  human  has  occu- 
pied too  large  a  place  in  thought  and  admiration,  and 
we  have  forgotten  that  in  proportion  as  it  excites  our 
wonder  He  who  made  it  what  it  is  ought  to  receive  our 
adoring  love.  Overlooking  this  reasonable  inference, 
men  and  women  have  ''  thought  more  highly  of  them- 
selves than  they  ought  to  think,"  and  while  not  aban- 
doning the  formal  homage  due  the  Almighty,  they  have 
withheld  from  it  that  dignified  fervidness  without  which 
it  is  mere  emptiness  and  show.  But  however  caused, 
it  should  not  continue ;  and  as  the  new  century  dawns 
on  the  world,  every  denomination  should  do  its  utmost 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  595 

by  instruction,  exhortation,  and  especially  by  reverent 
meditations  on  the  ineffable  greatness  of  God,  to  sup- 
press the  evil. 

It  is  well  known  that  helps  to  worship  have  frequently 
been  sought  in  architecture,  in  painting,  and  in  music. 
In  medieval  times  the  first  achieved  its  most  glorious 
triumphs.  The  Gothic  cathedral,  termed  by  Heine, 
''worship  in  stone,"  by  its  high  springing  arch,  its  lofty 
roof,  and  its  marvels  of  mysticism  in  sculptured  orna- 
mentation, seems  to  be  admirably  fitted  to  awaken  awe 
and  devotion.  Beautifully  and  truly  does  Ruskin  write, 
when  referring  to  the  old  builders : 

We  have  those  fair  fronts  of  variegated  mosaic,  charged  with 
wild  fancies  and  dark  hosts  of  imagery,  thicker  and  quainter  than 
ever  filled  the  depth  of  midsummer  dream,  those  vaulted  gates, 
trellised  with  close  leaves,  those  window-labyrinths  of  twisted  tra- 
cery and  starry  light  ;  those  misty  masses  of  multitudinous  pin- 
nacle and  diademed  tower  ;  the  only  witnesses,  perhaps,  that  re- 
main to  us  of  the  fear  and  faith  of  nations.  .  .  They  have  taken 
with  them  to  the  grave  their  powers,  their  honors,  and  their  er- 
rors, but  they  have  left  us  their  adoration.^ 

Something  of  this  appreciation  many  in  modern  times 
have  felt  when  visiting  San  Marco,  Tintern  and  Melrose 
Abbeys,  and  the  magnificent  cathedrals  of  Milan  and 
Rouen.  And  they  have  been  painfully  conscious  of  a 
difference  in  their  feelings  when  they  have  returned  to 
the  angular  and  positively  ugly  chapels,  with  their  stiff, 
highbacked  pews,  where  they  have  been  accustomed  to 
pray  and  praise,  or  to  the  handsome  building,  carpeted 
and  upholstered,  and  luxuriously  furnished,  more  like 
the  red-cushioned   House  of   Lords  in    London  than  a 

'  "Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture." 


59^      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

church,  or  to  that  greatest  monstrosity  of  modern  ad- 
vanced religionism,  that  desires  every  one  to  feel  free  and 
easy  when  in  the  house  of  God,  the  sanctuary  constructed 
to  look  as  much  like  a  theatre  as  possible.  Discomfort 
is  not  conducive  to  piety,  unless  it  be  the  acerbic  and 
ascetic  type;  and  mere  elegance  has  never  helped  to 
deepen  devotion  ;  but  every  approximation  to  the  theatre 
has  worked  against  its  very  existence.  While  we  can- 
not expect  to  return  to  the  Gothic  style,  and  while  it 
might  not  be  serviceable  to  do  so,  still  the  twentieth 
century  should  learn  from  the  influence  of  architecture 
on  religious  sensibilities,  to  seek  in  the  sacred  edifices 
of  the  future  such  harmonious  combinations,  such  glow 
of  light  and  color,  such  veraciousness,  tranquillity,  and 
self-restraint,  as  will  make  them  as  far  as  possible  what 
nature  is,  the  vehicle  of  the  Divine  Spirit  to  the  soul. 

Painting  has  not  the  same  claim  on  our  confidence. 
It  has  never,  in  my  opinion,  proven  itself  an  efflcient 
instrument  for  the  promotion  of  the  purest  and  most 
exalted  worship.  The  pictures  of  Leonardo,  Raphael, 
and  Michael  Angelo,  while  challenging  enthusiastic  ad- 
miration, and  while  of  a  certain  religious  value,  fail  to 
kindle  the  fires  of  devotion,  and  rather  tend  to  sensu- 
ousness  in  sacred  solemnities  than  to  spirituality.  It  is 
otherwise  with  music.  The  masterpieces  of  Titian  and 
Correggio  appeal  altogether  too  directly  to  the  passionate 
love  of  human  beauty  for  them  to  aid  in  developing  the 
higher  life.  But  of  the  sister  art,  Luthardt  has  thought- 
fully written  :  *'  The  high,  the  truly  moral  destiny  of 
music  is  to  render  sensible  the  harmonious  emotions 
and  images  of  a  mind  stirred  by  the  revelation  of  God 
and  his  kingdom,  by  a  poetry  of  sound  as  deeply  felt  as 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  597 

it  is  artistic."  ^  It  has  a  moral  destiny,  and  it  may  be 
added,  a  spiritual  destiny  as  well.  This  is  its  chief  char- 
acteristic. It  is  like  the  voice,  the  very  borderland  be- 
tween the  finite  and  the  infinite,  the  seen  and  the  un- 
seen, the  temporal  and  eternal.  In  its  greatest  perfec- 
tion it  is  the  child  of  the  Reformation,  and  expresses, 
while  it  intensifies  the  deep  unrest,  the  consuming  en- 
thusiasm, and  the  lofty  aspirations  of  that  sublime 
movement.  While  Gothic  architecture  symbolizes  the 
stability  of  faith,  and  painting  its  creative  energy,  music 
is  the  sign  of  its  progress,  of  its  reaching  out  after  the 
unattained,  and  of  the  endless  variations,  the  contrasted 
and  yet  related,  which  mark  its  symphonic  unfolding. 

To  its  cultivation  sufificient  attention  has  not  been 
given  by  modern  churches,  and  yet  they  have  not  been 
so  neglectful  as  were  many  of  their  predecessors.  Some 
advance  has  been  made,  but  much  more  remains  to  be 
done.  Oratorios,  or  portions  of  such  compositions,  have 
lately  been  given,  and  with  increasing  frequency,  in  city 
congregations.  They  have  usually  been  welcomed  by  im- 
mense gatherings  of  people,  but  unfortunately  they  have 
been  sought  rather  as  an  entertainment  than  as  a  sthn- 
ulus  to  worship.  The  crowds  that  attend  them,  by  their 
disrespectful  inattention  during  prayer,  by  their  mani- 
fest impatience  with  the  preacher,  who  apologetically 
assures  them  that  he  will  not  talk  long,  and  by  their  im- 
petuous haste  to  depart  as  soon  as  the  last  chorus  is 
given,  afford  melancholy  proof  that  they  are  not  seeking 
God  in  the  noble  masterpieces  of  Haydn,  Handel,  Mo- 
zart, or  Beethoven.  They  are  merely  bent  on  a  higher 
kind  of  diversion,  and  everything,  however  worthy  and 

1  "  Moral  Truths  of  Christianity." 


598      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

beautiful  in  itself,  that  tends  to  encourage  the  idea  that 
religious  exercises  are  primarily  designed  to  divert,  is  of 
immeasurable  detriment  to  the  spiritual  life.  If  churches 
would  only  realize  that  the  purpose  of  their  public  serv- 
ices is  not  merely  to  bring  together  a  mass  of  people, 
but  to  promote  worship,  and  that  music  itself  should 
only  be  employed  as  a  means  to  this  end,  then  they 
would  never  introduce  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  degrade 
it  to  the  level  of  an  exhibition,  and  they  would  never 
fail  to  provide  an  ample  place  for  prayer  and  preaching, 
it  being  as  needful  to  think  the  thoughts  of  God  after 
him  as  it  is  to  pour  out  the  soul  in  harmonious  homage 
before  him.  And  when  this  conviction  is  really  felt, 
then  there  will  be  a  purging  of  hymn  and  tune  books  of 
those  jaunty  ditties,  those  lovelorn  melodies,  and  those 
jerky  choruses,  which  have  as  little  to  do  with  praise  as 
a  bewildering  shower  of  meteors  has  to  do  with  the  glo- 
rious rising  of  the  sun. 

But  if  worship  is  necessary  to  the  religious  life,  so 
also  is  spiritual  culture.  The  new  birth  is  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  new  training  and  development.  And  here 
again  appears  the  specialization  to  which  Christianity 
has  been  called.  Upon  her  rests  the  obligation  to  edu- 
cate the  soul  in  heavenly  knowledge,  and  to  quicken  its 
affinities  and  aptitudes  for  heavenly  things.  She  is  to 
free  it  from  bondage  to  the  material  in  philosophy,  from 
the  carnal  in  enjoyment,  from  the  sordid  in  motives,  and 
from  the  debasing  in  ambitions.  There  is  no  grander 
work  than  this.  Secular  learning  is  to  be  esteemed 
highly  and  to  be  prized  greatly,  but  this  spiritual  culture 
rivals  it  in  dignity  and  importance,  and  likewise  imparts 
to  it  much  of  its  charm  and  sweetness.      They  ought 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  599 

never  to  be  divorced.  But  as  the  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  a  university  does  not  teach  languages,  and 
each  department  is  separated  from  the  others,  so  the 
church,  while  co-operating  with  the  college,  is  specially 
charged  with  her  own  peculiar  task.  While  in  doing 
her  work  she  should  recognize  her  limitations  and  not 
pretend  to  supervise  college  instruction,  she  should  use 
her  influence  to  prevent  such  instruction  from  becoming 
irreligious  in  tone  if  not  in  aim.  She  should  strive  to 
be  so  related  to  general  education  that  the  spirit  of 
Christianity  may  permeate  it  through  and  through.  But 
in  other  ways,  by  her  preaching,  her  teaching,  her  Sun- 
day-schools and  her  literature,  she  should  promote  the 
spiritual  culture  of  the  community  at  large.  This  end 
should  never  fade  from  view.  But  it  is  one  of  the  sad 
possibilities  that  in  giving  heed  to  many  demands  on 
their  strength  and  time  ministers  of  the  gospel  may  not 
always  attach  due  importance  to  this  part  of  their  mis- 
sion. The  nineteenth  century  has  known  such  cases, 
and  warns  the  twentieth  against  them.  It  has  known 
clergymen  who  rarely  visited  the  Sunday-school,  never 
catechized  or  sought  to  train  the  young,  who  infre- 
quently, if  at  all,  visited  their  parishioners,  and  then 
failed  to  inquire  into  the  religious  growth  of  the  people, 
and  in  no  real  sense  ever  shepherded  the  flock.  They 
were  so  preoccupied  with  club  meetings,  or  with  multi- 
tudinous lecture  engagements,  or  with  important  social 
amenities,  or  with  committees  on  every  conceivable  sub- 
ject, that  they  could  not  possibly  attend  in  any  effective 
way  to  the  principal  business  of  their  sacred  calling,  and 
as  a  result,  their  congregations  not  only  declined  in 
numbers,  but  deteriorated  also  in  spiritual  discernment, 


600      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

susceptibility,  and  power.  The  nineteenth  century  says 
to  preachers  of  the  word  as  they  enter  on  the  twentieth, 
that  if  they  would  really  serve  and  perpetuate  Christi- 
anity, their  chief  duty  must  receive  their  chief  concern, 
and  all  other  services,  admitting  them  within  limits  to  be 
legitimate,  must  be  undertaken  only  when  they  do  not 
conflict  therewith. 

Adequate  are  the  resources  at  their  disposal  for  this 
work.  They  possess  the  sacred  books,  particularly  the 
Gospels,  with  all  their  treasures  of  spiritual  knowledge. 
The  fitness  of  the  Bible  to  beget  and  foster  the  religious 
life  has  been  too  frequently  demonstrated  for  it  now  to 
be  open  to  question.  But  more  than  this,  during  the 
centuries  Christianity  has  accumulated  a  literature  of 
surpassing  richness,  and  in  every  way  fitted  to  second 
the  Bible  in  its  quickening  ministry.  This  is  too  little 
appreciated.  And  because  a  group  of  brilliant  writers 
early  in  the  history  of  the  United  States  abandoned  the 
evangelical  faith,  and  produced  some  memorable  vol- 
umes, the  misleading  impression  has  gone  abroad  that 
in  comparison  orthodoxy  is  intellectually  unproductive. 
It  were  an  ungracious  task  to  take  sides  in  this  partisan 
controversy.  But  it  may  be  admissible  to  quote  the  late 
Dr.  James  Martineau  in  support  of  the  position  that  the 
literature  which  makes  in  the  truest  sense  for  spiritual 
culture,  the  only  point  we  are  here  concerned  with,  has 
not  proceeded  from  the  school  of  thought  with  which 
he  himself  was  identified,  and  of  which  he  was  the  chief 
ornament  in  the  nineteenth  century: 

"I  am  constrained  to  say,"  he  writes  in  one  of  his  essays, 
"  that  neither  my  intellectual  preference  nor  my  moral  admiration 
goes  heartily  with  the  Unitarian  heroes,  sects,  or  productions  of 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  6o  I 

any  age.  Ebionites,  Arians,  Socinians — all  seem  to  me  to  contrast 
unfavorably  with  their  opponents,  and  to  exhibit  a  type  of  thought 
and  character  far  less  worthy,  on  the  whole,  of  the  true  genius  of 
Christianity.  I  am  conscious  that  my  deepest  obligations,  as  a 
learner  from  others,  are  in  almost  every  department  to  writers  not 
of  my  own  creed.  In  philosophy  I  had  to  unlearn  most  that  I  had 
imbibed  from  my  early  text-books  and  the  authors  in  chief  favor 
with  them.  In  biblical  interpretation  I  derive  from  Calvin  and 
Whitby  the  help  that  fails  me  in  Crell  and  Belshaw.  In  devotional 
literature  and  religious  thought  I  find  nothing  of  ours  that  does 
not  pale  before  Augustine,  Tauler,  and  Pascal,  and  in  the  poetry 
of  the  church  it  is  the  Latin  or  the  German  hymns  or  the  lines  of 
Charles  Wesley  or  Keble  that  fasten  on  my  memory  and  heart, 
and  make  all  else  seem  poor  and  cold." 

And  having  studied  at  the  feet  of  these  masters 
there  was  perfected  in  his  own  character  the  beautiful 
traits  which  he  thus  describes  as  distinguishing  the 
saints  of  God  : 

Hence  the  quietude  and  evenness  of  all  their  ways  ;  a  certain 
gentle,  solitary  air  that  seems  too  mild  to  give  out  so  much  power, 
a  half  mystic  reserve.  .  .  The  completest  self-sacrifice  gives  the 
completest  self-possession  ;  only  the  captive  soul  which  has  flung 
her  rights  away  has  all  her  powers  free.  Simply  to  ser-z'e  under 
the  instant  orders  of  the  living  God  is  the  highest  qualification  for 
command. 

In  harmony  with  which  is  the  sentiment  of  his  two  most 
remarkable  hymns,  the  one  beginning  with  : 

Thy  way  is  in  the  deep,  O  Lord, 
E'en  there  I'll  go  with  thee. 

And  the  other  : 

A  voice  upon  the  midnight  air 
Where  Kedron'  s  moonlit  w^aters  stray. 

Judged,  therefore,  by  its  effect   on  this  great  mind, 


602      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETIiENTH    CENTURY 

there  can  be  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  hterature  of 
evangelical  Christianity  is  admirably  fitted  to  promote 
spiritual  culture.  Its  claim  to  popular  consideration 
the  churches  should  set  forth  lucidly  and  earnestly,  for 
probably  its  neglect  by  the  last  generation  accounts  in 
no  small  degree  for  some  of  the  religious  aberrations 
and  instances  of  faith-failure  which  we  have  been  called 
on  to  deplore.  When  individuals  concentrate  their 
attention  on  such  authors  as  Ibsen,  what  can  we  expect 
but  mental  desolation  ?  Concerning  the  latest  produc- 
tion of  this  writer,  Tolstoy  has  just  written  : 

I  have  read  his  last  drama,  "  If  the  Dead  Wake. "  It  is  simply 
a  delirium,  and  is  devoid  of  life,  character,  and  dramatic  action. 
Thirty-five  years  ago  such  a  drama  would  have  been  stifled  by  a 
cutting  parody  in  the  press,  and  the  piece  would  have  been  ridi- 
culed to  death.  How  can  one  now  speak  of  the  serious  tasks 
before  the  theatre  ?     They  are  at  an  end. 

No  wonder,  when  the  mind  is  supremely  occupied  with 
such  works,  when  drivel  and  nastiness  compete  for 
the  mastery,  if  something  like  ophthalmic  disturbance 
should  vitiate  spiritual  vision. 

To  neutralize  poison  of  this  kind,  or  better  still,  to 
prevent  its  being  taken,  Christianity  should  at  the 
earliest  period  in  the  formation  of  character  begin  the 
cultivation  of  religious  feelings,  habits,  and  tastes.  The 
nineteenth  century  has  furnished  innumerable  "  modern 
instances"  of  the  ''ancient  saw"  that  ''prevention  is 
better  than  cure,"  or  to  render  it  in  the  speech  of  latest 
experience,  "  is  easier  than  cure."  Save  the  child  if 
you  would  save  society,  is  the  conclusion  of  the  wisest 
reformers;  and  save  the  child  if  you  save  Christianity, 
may  be  taken  as  an  equally  axiomatic  principle.      If  it 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  603 

is  true  that  "the  child  is  father  to  the  man,"  it  will  also 
be  found  true  that  he  cannot  fail  to  be  father  to  the 
church  as  well.  All  that  Pestalozzi  has  written,  all  that 
Froebel  has  devised,  and  all  that  the  magnificent  en- 
deavors of  the  last  hundred  years  have  accomplished  on 
behalf  of  childhood,  has  accentuated  the  truth  that  the 
importance  of  beginning  early  to  develop  the  life  of  the 
soul  cannot  be  overestimated.  This  in  some  measure 
is  appreciated  by  the  followers  of  Christ,  but  it  must 
take  hold  more  and  more  on  their  reason  and  conscience 
if  its  beneficial  results  are  to  be  wrought  out  in  the 
immediate  future.  The  Sunday-school  must  be  ren- 
dered more  efficient;  ministers  of  the  gospel  must  seek 
in  it  the  sphere  for  their  most  effective  ministrations  ; 
and  parents  must  co-operate  with  its  endeavors,  and 
must  supplement  them  far  more  than  is  common  at 
present  with  home  instruction  and  guidance.  Many 
improvements  have  been  suggested  by  General  Booth, 
and  whether  we  agree  with  him  in  every  particular  or 
not,  one  passage  he  has  penned  indicates  the  methods 
we  should  use,  the  hope  we  should  cherish,  and  the  pos- 
sibilities to  be  realized  in  coming  time,  and  is  entitled 
to  our  consideration.      He  writes  : 

When  the  conditions  named  in  the  first  pages  of  this  volume 
are  complied  with — when  the  parents  are  godly,  and  the  children 
are  surrounded  by  holy  influences  and  examples  from  their  birth, 
and  trained  up  in  the  spirit  of  their  early  dedication — they  will 
doubtless  come  to  know  and  love  and  trust  their  Saviour  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  things,  the  Holy  Ghost  will  take  possession  of 
them  from  the  first.  Mothers  and  fathers  will,  as  it  were,  put 
them  into  the  Saviour's  arms  in  their  swaddling  clothes,  and  he 
will  take  them  and  bless  them,  and  sanctify  them  from  the  very 
womb,  and  make  them  his  own,  without  their  knowing  the  hour 


604      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

or  the  place  when  they  pass  from  the  kingdom  of  darkness  into 
the  kingdom  of  light.  In  fact,  with  such  little  ones  it  shall  never 
be  very  dark,  for  their  natural  birth  shall  be,  as  it  were,  in  the 
spiritual  twilight,  which  begins  with  the  dim  dawn,  and  increases 
gradually  until  the  noonday  brightness  is  reached  ;  so  answering 
to  the  prophetic  dcscrijDtion,  "  the  path  of  the  just  is  as  the  shin- 
ing light  that  shineth  more  and  more  unto  the  perfect  day"  !^ 

What  specialism  in  the  world  surpasses  this  in  sub- 
limity and  far-reaching  consequences  ?  And  yet,  though 
pastors  are  chiefly  responsible  before  God  and  man  for 
its  application,  there  is  not  a  theological  seminary  that 
I  know  of  that  affords  its  students  an  insight  into  child- 
nature  or  bestows  any  attention  on  child-culture.  The 
graduates  go  out  into  the  world  as  ignorant  of  these 
subjects  as  presumably  they  are  of  the  intricacies  of  in- 
ternational diplomacy.  They  are  not  to  be  ambassadors 
representing  imperialisms  or  republics,  and  they  may, 
therefore,  be  excused  if  they  have  not  mastered  Vatel, 
Kent,  and  Puffendorf ;  but  they  are  the  Lord's  com- 
missioners sent  to  childhood  and  youth,  and  they  can 
hardly  be  blameless  if  they  have  failed  to  qualify  them- 
selves for  their  momentous  trust.  But  unfortunately 
the  large  majority  of  clergymen  never  seem  to  think  of 
this.  They  have  consequently  very  little  to  do  with 
the  religious  training  of  the  children  of  their  parish  ; 
they  are  often  received  rather  coolly  in  their  own  Sun- 
day-schools, are  sometimes  politely  told  by  people  who 
know  as  little  as  themselves,  if  not  less,  that  they  would 
better  not  interfere  with  this  department  of  church  work. 
And  in  this  way  the  preliminary  stages  of  spiritual  cul- 
ture come   under   the  direction    of    those  who   in   the 


"  Training  of  Children, "  p.  162. 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  605 

majority  of  instances  have  had  no  special  preparation 
for  their  task,  and  who  are  themselves  the  crudest  of 
teachers.  Then,  having  been  guilty  of  this  blundering, 
Christianity  affects  to  be  surprised  that  not  a  few  parents 
are  complaining  and  that  multitudes  of  scholars  are 
seemingly  so  little  advantaged  and  that  in  several  im- 
portant centers  the  decline  of  faith  is  perceptible.  But 
the  nineteenth  century  at  this  hour  is  saying  very 
bluntly  to  the  church  of  the  twentieth,  that  this  aston- 
ishment is  unwarranted,  and  that  if  she  does  not  im- 
prove her  methods,  the  alienation  from  her  altars  in 
communities  where  scientific  secular  education  has  pro- 
gressed will  increase  more  and  more. 

Spiritual  service  constitutes  the  third  aspect  of  the 
specialization  we  are  considering.  It  is  well  known  that 
in  ancient  Israel  various  objects  were  able  to  impart  a 
kind  of  sanctity  to  others.  Thus  the  gift  as  soon  as  it 
touched  the  altar  was  declared  holy  ;  and,  as  Haggai 
sets  forth,  holy  flesh  carried  in  the  skirt  of  a  garment 
made  the  garment  holy.^  These  distinctions,  however, 
were  purely  ceremonial  and  not  real,  and  find  their  coun- 
terpart to-day,  not  in  some  magical  properties  inherent 
in  sacred  places  or  vessels  by  which  a  new  moral  quality 
can  be  transferred  to  things  profane,  but  in  the  duty 
and  power  of  Christianity  to  inspire  secular  pursuits  and 
earthly  vocations,  as  light  penetrates  and  irradiates  the 
crystal,  with  the  religious  spirit.  An  eminent  Australian 
scholar  has  recently  said  :  ''The  function  of  the  church 
is  not  to  govern  the  world  ;  it  seeks  rather  to  inspire 
the  world.  .  .  Its  greatest  gift  to  the  world  should  be 
itself,  and  it  is  useful  only  when  it  is  true  to  its  own 

^  Haggai  2  :  12,  13. 


6o6      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ethos  and  spirit."  ^  Just  as  the  sun  does  not  fashion 
the  harvests,  shape  the  flowers,  or  mold  the  waves  of 
the  sea  and  clouds  of  the  sky,  but  imparts  to  them  its 
own  peculiar  properties,  by  which  they  are  beautified 
and  glorified  with  many  hues,  and  gilded  with  a  shim- 
mering lustre,  the  vegetable  world  receiving  from  its 
beam  life  as  well  as  color,  so  the  church  is  not  sent  to 
determine  political  platforms,  to  create  commercial  en- 
terprises, or  to  make  and  order  social  institutions,  but 
only  and  supremely  to  saturate  them  all  with  its  light, 
and  permeate  them  with  its  love.  Ruskin  rejoiced  that 
he  had  discovered  in  the  Church  of  St.  Giacomo  di 
Rialto,  at  Venice,  this  inscription:  "Around  this  tem- 
ple let  the  merchant's  law  be  just,  his  weights  true,  and 
his  covenants  faithful."  And  this  kind  of  influence 
should  be  exerted  by  Christianity  on  the  world's  busi- 
ness wherever  she  exists.  From  her  altars  there  should 
stream  forth  a  potent  protest  against  every  form  of 
chicanery  and  fraud  in  trade.  It  is  not  for  her  to  plunge 
into  the  wheat  pit,  or  to  send  her  representatives  to 
strive  with  "  bulls  "  and  ''bears"  on  stock  exchanges, 
or  even  to  conduct  commercial  ventures,  but  rather  to 
become  the  very  soul  and  conscience  of  the  markets, 
small  and  great,  where  men  and  women  are  seeking 
gain.  Nor  can  she  serve  society  more  directly  and 
effectively  than  by  thus  projecting  into  the  poisoned 
blood  of  modern  traffic  the  anti-toxine  of  her  own  ethi- 
cal spirit.  And  this  relationship  to  what  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  mercantile  side  of  her  mission,  illustrates 
what  should  be  her  connection  with  political  movements 
and  social  improvements.     The  late  archbishop  of  Can- 

^  Andrew  Harper,  "The  Book  of  Deuteronomy.*' 


THE    PAST   AND    FUTURE  607 

terbury  frequently  alluded  to  the  new  place  that 
''  civism,"  as  he  liked  to  term  it,  had  come  to  occupy 
in  the  pulpit.  And  Bishop  Henry  C.  Potter  explains 
this  departure  in  a  recent  number  of  "The  Churchman." 
He  says  : 

Late  and  slowly,  but  surely,  I  believe,  the  church  is  arising  to 
the  consciousness  that  to  the  great  and  grave  social  and  industrial 
problems  of  our  age  she  can  no  longer  consent  to  be  indifferent  ; 
that  not  only  do  they  involve  questions  that  concern  her,  and  that 
in  debating  them  she  must,  whether  she  would  or  no,  find  a  voice 
and  use  it,  but  more  than  this,  if  only  she  has  the  wisdom  to  see 
and  the  courage  to  wield  it,  she  holds  in  her  hand  the  talisman 
which  is  to  be  the  instrument  of  their  solution.  Hers  alone  is 
that  better-world  philosophy  which  can  deal  effectively  with  our 
social  problems.  May  God  arouse  her  to  bring  forth  her  talent 
from  the  napkin  of  its  long  disuse. 

But  what  is  this  philosophy,  this  talisman  ?  Doubtless  it 
is  embodied  in  the  Golden  Rule.  It  is  not  for  the  church 
to  interfere  in  labor  disputations  as  a  demagogue,  nor  as 
a  "  walking  delegate,"  nor  is  she  to  concern  herself  with 
the  usual  insults  heaped  upon  her  by  the  average  brow- 
beating, mischief-making  agitator.  Her  duty  is  simple. 
She  must  strive  to  convince  all  parties  that  the  true 
principles  on  which  the  industrial  world  should  be  or- 
ganized are  contained  in  the  gospel.  These  principles 
she  should  expound  and  illustrate,  and  toward  their  suc- 
cess she  should  contribute  of  her  resources  and  energy. 
But  this  is  not  the  same  thing  as  undertaking  to  run 
factories  and  direct  other  departments  of  production  and 
distribution  on  her  own  behalf.  This  is  not  going  into 
trade  herself,  establishing  Brook  Farms  or  Oneida  Com- 
munities, or  engaging  in  similar  ventures  as  principal 
and  manager.      In  this  age  of  specialism  such  undertak- 


6o8      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ings  fail  to  command  the  attention  of  intelligent  people. 
The  mission  of  the  church  is  to  transform  industrial  re- 
lations and  conditions,  and  not  to  administer  its  affairs. 
She  is  sent  to  spiritualize  labor,  to  unfold  its  divine 
dignity,  to  guard  it  from  the  degradations  that  are  in- 
flicted on  it  by  greed,  and  to  surcharge  it  through  and 
through  with  a  sense  of  its  own  sacredness.  It  is  for 
her  to  breathe  the  breath  of  heaven  on  the  workshop  ; 
to  impart  to  the  artisan  a  consciousness  of  his  nearness 
to  the  "  Great  Artificer"  ;  and  to  teach  employer  and 
employed  that  the  recognition  of  religious  morality  is 
the  one  thing  necessary  to  the  good  understanding  of 
both  and  the  temporal  prosperity  of  each. 

But  spiritual  service  does  not  end  here.  To  render 
her  ministry  effective,  to  succeed  in  maintaining  worship 
and  in  promoting  the  culture,  which  involves  the  soul's 
regeneration  and  its  affiance  with  God  through  Christ, 
the  organized  church  must  go  after  the  people,  and  not 
be  content  merely  to  invite  them  in  a  general  way  to 
come  to  her  courts.  The  commission  under  which  she 
acts  commands  her  to  "go";  and  if  she  hesitates  to 
comply  with  this  injunction,  and  particularly  if  she 
practically  excludes  all  but  her  own  pewholders  from 
the  sanctuary,  she  sins  against  her  Lord,  travesties  his 
religion,  and  by  her  exclusiveness  creates  a  prejudice 
against  Christianity  which  is  felt  even  where  more  gen- 
erous sentiments  and  more  enlightened  views  prevail. 
It  were  better  for  the  faith  that  every  aristocratic  con- 
gregation that  hedges  itself  round  by  artificial  society 
barriers,  and  that  renders  possible  the  ebullition  of  in- 
dignation that  was  provoked  in  a  great  city  through  the 
exclusion  of  a  }'oung  lady  from   a  seat   in  a  pew  owned 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  609 

by  a  plutocrat,  should  become  extinct ;  for  the  impres- 
sion made  by  such  bodies  is  thoroughly  mischievous  and 
misleading.  Professor  Seeley  never  uttered  a  truer 
word  than  when  he  said  :  **  Christianity  would  sacrifice 
its  divinity  if  it  abandoned  its  missionary  character  and 
became  a  mere  educational  institution."  And  this  is 
just  the  price  she  has  to  pay  for  the  privilege  of  count- 
ing among  her  communities  the  little,  fastidious,  per- 
fumed, self-satisfied  groups  and  coteries,  which  are  only 
entitled  to  the  name  of  churches  by  courtesy,  for  by 
their  own  showing  they  are  destitute  of  the  catholic 
spirit,  even  if  they  do  profess  the  catholic  creed.  Con- 
templating such  upstart,  purse-proud  fellowships,  the 
world  without  much  hesitancy  concludes  that  if  what 
they  represent  is  religion,  then  it  is  self-evidently  of  the 
earth,  earthy.  Of  such  bodies  we  may  speak  in  the 
strong  words  of  Dr.  Clifford  : 

You  are  so  walled  about  by  respectablility  and  smitten  by  the 
idolatry  of  social  rank  and  corrupted  by  the  falsehoods  of  the  world 
that  you  no  longer  touch  human  life  at  its  heart,  or  constrain  us 
to  think  of  you  as  the  disciples  of  the  Carpenter,  who  knew  what 
was  in  man,  and  judged  him,  not  according  to  the  garb  or  speech, 
but  in  the  light  of  his  vast  possibilities  of  redemption  and  uplift.^ 

Are  they  not  then  a  positive  evil,  and  would  it  not  be 
better  were  they  to  disappear  from  civilization  altogether  ? 
Only  one  better  thing  can  I  imagine  ;  namely,  that  they 
should  at  once  repent,  confess  their  sins,  and  with  gen- 
uine appreciation  of  the  holy  privilege  devote  themselves 
to  spiritual  service.  **  There  is  much  land  yet  to  be 
possessed,"   and  the  experiences  of   the   last   hundred 

1  Rev.  John  Clifford,  M.  A.,  D.D.,  "  Federation  of  Free  Churches." 

20 


6lO      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

years  unite  in  calling  on  all  the  disciples  of  our  Lord  to 
join  without  respect  to  social  standing  or  wealth  in  the 
noble  enterprise  of  bringing  mankind  to  the  knowledge 
and  acknowledgment  of  the  truth.  And  when  they  with 
something  like  common  consent  hear  the  call,  and  appre- 
ciate the  fact  that  they  are  to  minister  to  others,  and  not 
demand  that  they  themselves  should  be  ministered  unto, 
then  will  the  world  need  no  other  apologetic  to  prove 
that  the  cross  is  the  emblem  of  a  faith  born  of  God's 
great  love  and  destined  finally  to  re-create  humanity  in 
love. 

As  to  the  manner  in  which  these  disciples  should 
prosecute  their  special  work,  and  the  spirit  in  which  it 
should  be  undertaken  and  conducted,  the  religious  mes- 
sage of  the  century  has  some  practical  suggestions  to  offer. 
It  begins  this  part  of  its  communication  by  condemning 
the  unimpressible,  impassible,  passionless  manner  in 
which  not  a  few  church-members  in  days  gone  by  have 
attempted  to  advance  the  cause  of  Christ,  and  by  the 
commendation  of  heartiness  and  enthusiasm.  Coldness 
and  the  Laodicean  temperament,  it  reminds  us,  have  ever 
proven  fatal  to  progress.  In  the  eighteenth  century  bish- 
ops in  their  pastoral  charges  usually  warned  their  clergy 
against  fervor  and  zeal,  and  they  were  fervently  obeyed, 
if  fervor  in  being  precise,  frigid,  and  icy  is  not  a  mis- 
nomer. Doctor  Johnson  said  more  than  once,  that  "the 
clergy  in  their  sermons  used  to  put  the  apostles  on  trial 
every  week  on  a  charge  of  committing  forgery."  And 
as  a  result  of  this  flat,  dull,  sluggish,  unruffled  conven- 
tionalism Christianity  lost  its  hold  on  the  age.  Wags 
made  merry  over  a  faith  that  spoke  of  the  soul's  peril 
in  terms  of  such  polite  and  well-balanced   restraint  as 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  6ll 

might  fitly  be  employed  by  one  lavendered  courtier  in 
congratulating  another  on  the  style  of  his  wig  or  the  cut 
of  his  coat,  and  sincere,  earnest  people  simply  thrust  it 
aside  with  scorn  as  being  too  languid,  benumbed,  and 
soulless  for  it  to  be  worthy  of  serious  consideration. 
And  since  then,  and  down  to  the  present  hour,  there 
have  not  been  lacking  in  the  pulpit  preachers  who  have 
imitated  the  surpliced  and  Geneva-gowned  glacial  divines 
of  former  times,  who  have  affected  a  sneering  superi- 
ority over  their  gloomy  and  ardent  evangelical  fellow- 
laborers,  and  who  have  witnessed,  without  apparently 
any  shock  to  their  self-complacency,  the  gradual  decline 
and  inevitable  extinction  of  their  congregations.  It  may 
be  suggested  that  these  clergymen  are  to  be  praised  for 
not  affecting  to  feel  more  than  they  really  do.  Un- 
doubtedly; but  if  they  do  not  feel  sufficiently  the 
solemnity  of  their  responsibility  so  as  to  be  passionately 
in  earnest,  have  they  not  mistaken  their  calling  ?  And 
why  should  churches  that  owe  their  existence  to  the 
apostolic  fervor  of  their  founders,  pay  these  stoical  and 
torpid  ministers  comfortable  salaries  to  destroy  what  has 
been  built  up  at  an  incalculable  cost  of  consuming  de- 
votion }  These  questions  the  twentieth  century  will 
probably  answer  in  a  very  decisive  and  practical  manner. 
It  will  not  be  so  indifferent  or  so  ready  to  yield  to  sen- 
timental considerations  as  its  predecessor,  for  it  will 
perceive  that  its  own  well-being  depends  largely  on  spir- 
ituality, and  only  spirituality  in  its  most  real  and  intense 
form  will  be  able  to  hold  its  own  against  the  eager, 
breathless,  and  fiery  pursuit  of  this  world's  goods  in  the 
future.  In  the  interest  of  its  own  progress  it  will  de- 
mand ot  the  church  that  she  rouse  herself,  that  she  be 


6l2      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

as  zealous  in  the  furtherance  of  her  specialism  as  the 
merchant,  the  soldier,  or  the  scientist  is  in  his,  and  that 
she  cease  consecrating  to  the  loftiest  vocation  on  earth 
colorless,  lymphatic  men,  who  have  not  sufficient  intel- 
lect, to  say  nothing  of  heart,  to  feel  deeply  the  tremen- 
dous import  of  their  sublime  calling. 

The  voice  of  the  past  concurs  in  the  demand  for  in- 
creased enthusiasm.  Not  until  the  baptism  of  fire  de- 
scended on  the  apostles  were  they  qualified  to  spread 
''the  glad  tidings"  throughout  their  own  country  and 
in  the  regions  beyond.  Enthusiasm,  born  of  the  Spirit, 
explains  the  wondrous  career  of  Francis  of  Assisi,  and 
the  more  marvelous  ministry  of  Wesley  and  Whitefield. 
Whenever  a  great  movement  has  commenced  this  stren- 
uous intensity  has  appeared.  It  is  to  be  discerned  an- 
imating the  masses  that  rushed  forth  to  reclaim  the  holy 
sepulchre  from  the  unbelieving  Saracen.  The  Crusades 
were  born  of  enthusiasm,  and  it  inspired  the  Reforma- 
tion, the  abolition  agitation,  and  every  other  notable  en- 
deavor for  the  betterment  of  mankind.  Without  it  the 
discoveries  of  science  would  have  been  retarded  ;  without 
it  the  explorations  of  desolate  regions  would  have  been 
impossible  ;  and  without  it  political  revolutions  would 
have  failed,  or  what  is  more  likely,  would  never  have 
been  attempted.  Ever  glorious  is  the  army  of  enthusi- 
asts, and  proud  ought  any  man  or  woman  to  be  of  a 
place,  even  the  humblest,  in  its  ranks,  for  it  includes 
prophets,  apostles,  martyrs,  and  names  more  recent, 
such  as  Bruno,  Galileo,  Copernicus,  Kepler,  Morse, 
Edison,  Garrison,  Phillips,  Wilberforce,  Florence  Night- 
ingale, Julia  Ward  Howe,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  Glad- 
stone, Lincoln,  Hugo,  Henry  Martyn,  Mackay  of  Uganda, 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  613 

Patterson,  Moody,  Spurgeon,  and  a  host  of  others  as 
bright  as  the  stars  and  as  uncountable.  As  well  ex- 
pect the  hyperborean  regions  of  the  north  to  melt  be- 
fore the  luminous  streams  of  the  Aurora  Borealis,  as  to 
hope  for  any  enduring  victory  to  be  won  over  ignorance, 
superstition,  or  tyranny,  by  the  sunless  and  Arctic  efful- 
gence of  coldly  glittering  intellectualism.  Fire,  though 
often  dangerous,  is  more  necessary  to  civilization  than 
frost.  The  blacksmith's  forge  produces  more  useful 
articles  than  an  iceberg,  however  large  and  glistening, 
and  the  earth  warmed  by  the  sun  and  rich  in  golden 
harvests  and  beautiful  with  flowers,  is  of  more  immedi- 
ate profit  and  joy  to  mankind  than  the  same  earth 
sheeted  and  shrouded  in  snow.  Enthusiasm  is  as  indis- 
pensable now  to  mighty  achievements  as  ever  in  days 
gone  by,  and  if  Christianity  in  the  future  is  to  accom- 
plish anything  worthy  of  her  renown  she  must  not  de- 
spise its  potent  offices.  The  cross  which  Malize  bore 
when  sent  to  rouse  the  clans  was  ablaze  and  flaming, 
and  was  termed  the  "Cross  of  Shame,"  for  to  refuse  its 
summons  doomed  the  Highlander  to  infamy.  And  only 
a  fiery  cross  can  now  startle  the  world  to  its  religious 
responsibility,  and  none  other  will  produce  a  sense  of 
shame  if  its  majestic  summons  is  derided. 

But  further,  the  nineteenth  century  testifies,  that  in 
conducting  her  special  mission  Christianity  should  learn 
henceforth  to  do  so  consistently  and  in  conformity  with 
her  exalted  character.  There  are  means  and  methods 
that  may  be  employed  in  the  interests  of  a  noble  cause, 
which  though  not  necessarily  disreputable  or  sinful  in 
themselves,  are  totally  unworthy  of  its  dignity  and  de- 
rogatory to  its  claims.     From  such  as  these  the  religion 


6 14      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

of  Jesus  has  suffered  much  during  the  past  twenty-five 
years.  Endeavors  have  been  made  to  draw  people  to 
church  by  the  announcement  of  solos,  brass  bands,  or- 
gan recitals,  surpliced  choirs,  chalk  sermons,  stereopticon 
preachments,  sacred  concerts,  and  the  experiencs  of  con- 
verted prize  fighters,  gamblers,  and  the  like.  Comment- 
ing on  this  state  of  affairs  Rev.  Archibald  G.  Brown 
wrote  to  the  "  British  Weekly"  : 

The  clap-trap  of  the  day  is  degrading  the  work  of  Christ  and 
demoralizing  the  people.  It  gives  the  infidel  ground  for  saying, — 
as  one  did  to  my  knowledge  lately,  —  "  Their  Christ  is  played  out." 
This  remark  was  made  as  he  pointed  to  a  flaming  bill  outside  a 
mission-hall  announcing  some  special  attractions.  .  .  What  would 
our  grandfathers  have  said  to  such  an  announcement  as  this  in 
connection  with  supposed  evangelistic  work:  "Grand  pictorial 
comic  pantomime  !  Lots  of  fun  and  roars  of  laughter  for  every- 
body !     Come  early  ! ' ' 

This  last  is  presumably  an  extreme  case,  but  it  shows 
to  what  lengths  churches  may  go  when  they  begin  to  bid 
for  congregations  by  such  worldly  inducements.  But  it 
may  be  replied  that  congregations  are  necessary,  and 
must  be  drawn  somehow,  and  that  it  is  far  better  to  col- 
lect them  by  such  means  as  these  than  for  them  not  to 
be  gathered  at  all.  The  conclusion,  however,  is  not 
manifestly  self-evident.  What  if  the  people  are  not 
made  any  l^etter  for  the  coming  ;  what  if  they  only  seek 
amusement  and  acquire  in  the  church  a  taste  for  the- 
atrical exhibitions  ?  And  what  if,  seeing  through  the 
sham,  they  turn  away  disgusted  from  religion  }  Is  any 
one  so  childish  as  to  believe  that  a  cornet  solo  performed 
by  a  young  girl  daintily  gowned  will  have  in  it  some 
sanctifying  grace  which  the  same  instrument  does  not 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  615 

possess  when  blown  in  a  concert  hall  ?  Can  any  one 
be  so  infantile  in  his  fancies  as  to  suppose  that  an  or- 
dinary string  band,  perhaps  playing  waltz  tunes  slowly 
and  inartistically,  is  at  all  fitted  to  help  a  distressed  soul 
on  to  God  ?  And  if  not,  and  if  these  appliances  are 
only  rivaling  the  big  drum  at  the  circus  tent  in  a  frantic 
effort  to  secure  a  crowd,  would  it  not  be  just  as  well  to 
leave  the  crowd  to  its  wanderings  ?  They  may  gain  less 
harm  on  the  streets  than  may  come  to  them  from  the 
spectacle  of  a  great  religion  employing  cheap  and  paltry 
means  to  obtain  a  hearing.  But  there  is  no  need  to  use 
such  pitiable  attractions.  Let  the  people  be  convinced 
by  the  personal  sympathy  of  the  church,  by  her  interest 
in  their  welfare,  and  by  her  solicitude  to  help  them  in 
their  homes,  that  she  is  really  their  friend  and  is  seek- 
ing their  spiritual  advancement,  and  there  will  be  no 
necessity  to  publish  humiliating  advertisements  of  the 
variety  show  kind  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  them  to 
the  house  of  God. 

The  church,  also,  should  be  as  circumspect  and  as 
blameless  in  raising  money  for  her  maintenance  and  for 
her  particular  work  as  in  the  methods  adopted  for  the 
increase  of  congregations.  Revenues  are  no  more  to  be 
sought  by  unworthy  schemes  for  religious  purposes,  than 
the  pews  are  to  be  filled  by  notices  that  are  an  offense 
to  self-respecting  Christians.  How  can  we  expect  to  com- 
mand revenue  for  the  religion  of  Christ,  when  its  sup- 
porters are  not  willing  to  put  themselves  out  a  little  for 
the  sake  of  meeting  its  pecuniary  needs,  but  proceed  to 
sell  ice-cream  and  peddle  crazy-quilts  and  bric-a-brac  to 
supply  the  requisite  funds  ?  Can  we  imagine  Dorcas  sell- 
ing oysters,  or  Priscilla  presiding  at  a  bazaar,  or  St.  Paul 


6l6      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

calling  on  the  church  at  Jerusalem  to  hold  a  fair  that  he 
might  have  the  means  to  establish  a  mission  at  Corinth? 
These  things  are  inconceivable.  The  early  disciples 
would  never  have  dreamed  of  degrading  the  Cross  in 
this  manner  to  the  level  of  a  mere  worldly  enterprise. 
And  in  our  day  the  commercial  instinct  is  so  unduly 
developed  that  we  should  imitate  their  example,  for  by 
insisting  on  free  gifts  without  mercantile  equivalents,  it 
may  be  possible  to  avert  from  the  age  an  increase  of 
cupidity.  But  it  may  be  answered  by  some  anxious  and 
troubled  saint,  that  a  bell  ought  to  be  in  the  church 
tower,  or  carpet  on  the  church  floor,  an  organ  in  the 
church  choir,  and  even  a  church  itself  to  hold  the  organ, 
carpet,  and  bell,  and  that  without  recourse  to  secular 
means,  to  tableaux,  suppers,  sales  of  fancy  goods,  these 
imperative  demands  cannot  be  supplied.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, quite  clear  that  they  are  imperative.  Perhaps  they 
are  not  needed  at  all.  To  those  who  are  otherwise 
minded  it  may  not  be  amiss  if  they  ponder  this  sharp 
remonstrance  from  the  pen  of  a  recent  writer: 

What  shall  it  profit  a  church  if  it  gains  enough  money  to  pay 
its  expenses,  and  loses  its  message  and  debauches  the  community? 
You  say  you  could  not  have  bought  the  carpet  without  the  oyster 
supper — a  carpet  is  not  necessary  for  a  church.  You  say  you  could 
not  have  bought  the  organ — a  church  can  prosper  without  an  or- 
gan. You  say  even  the  building  could  not  have  been  paid  for — a 
building  is  not  essential.  The  apostolic  church  had  no  carpets, 
or  organs,  or  edifices,  but  it  was  mighty  and  prevailed.  The 
church  of  Christ  was  mightier  in  the  Catacombs  than  it  afterward 
was  in  the  cathedrals.  Better  go  without  any  of  the  supposed 
necessities  of  a  church,  and  maintain  the  faith  once  delivered  to 
the  saints,  than  have  organs  and  cushions  and  carpets  and  a  spire, 
secured  by  methods  which  demoralize  the  community  and  deaden 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  617 

the  conscience  of  the  professed  followers  of  the  Lord.  But,  you 
say,  the  minister's  salary  could  not  be  paid  in  any  other  way. 
Then  let  him  go.  That  proves  that  he  is  not  needed.  There  are 
too  many  churches  in  the  majority  of  places,  and  if  a  church  is 
too  weak  to  feed  and  clothe  a  minister,  then  it  is  time  for  that 
church  to  give  up  the  ghost. 

There  is  never  a  necessity  for  anything  that  cannot  be 
legitimately  provided  for,  that  is,  provided  for  in  such  a 
way  as  not  to  contradict  and  subvert  the  very  object  for 
which  the  money  is  secured.  Were  Christianity  an  im- 
poverished institution,  and  were  it  rapidly  tending  toward 
financial  embarrassment,  it  would  not  be  justified  in  se- 
curing revenues  by  appealing  to  the  trade  spirit  in  man. 
But  as  it  is,  with  its  enormous  resources,  it  is  inexcus- 
ably guilty  if  it  falls  back  on  measures  which  are  essen- 
tially mercenary.  Were  church-members  simply  to  do 
their  duty,  and  every  one  bear  his  part  in  meeting  the 
expenses  incurred  for  the  support  of  the  gospel,  there 
would  not  be  this  constant  exhibition  of  approaching  in- 
solvency and  this  constant  unedifying  struggle  for  the 
possession  of  funds  which  have  scandalized  Christianity 
of  late.  The  impression  has  been  made  by  the  unwil- 
lingness of  many  professors  of  religion  to  contribute  of 
their  means,  that  they  have  lost  confidence  in  the  Faith, 
or  that  they  are  willing  to  enjoy  its  benefits  and  leave 
the  world  to  pay  the  bills.  This,  however,  is  an  unten- 
able conclusion.  The  explanation  lies  in  a  different  di- 
rection. Making  allowance  for  quite  a  number  of  alleged 
Christians  who  are  shamelessly  stingy  and  penurious, 
there  are  other  causes  at  work  which  account  for  the 
frantic  and  questionable  efforts  put  forth  to  supply  the 
Lord's  treasury.     Among  these  may  be  noticed  the  fail- 


6l8      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

ure  on  the  part  of  officials  to  devise  and  supervise  an 
adequate  financial  system  in  the  churches  ;  the  unwil- 
lingness to  hold  members  strictly  to  their  obligations  ; 
and  a  weak,  nerveless  administration  in  temporal  things ; 
also  the  constant  multiplication  of  benevolent  projects 
on  the  option  often  of  flighty  and  irresponsible  individ- 
uals, and  the  building  of  meeting-houses  and  schools  for 
which  there  has  been  no  public  demand,  and  which  have 
been  undertaken  without  conference  and  without  reason- 
able financial  backing.  It  is  the  utter  welter  and  con- 
fusion that  reigns  through  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the 
church  on  money  matters  that  occasions  so  much  mis- 
understanding and  leads  to  so  many  undignified  schemes. 
Considering  this,  it  is  a  marvel  that  she  has  contributed 
as  much  as  she  has  for  the  advancement  of  religion,  and 
the  magnificent  sums  she  has  given  go  to  prove  that  she 
is  under  no  necessity  to  degrade  herself  by  invoking  the 
aid  of  traffic  to  supply  her  needs,  and  that,  were  she  to 
be  more  thorough  and  systematic,  she  could  easily  in- 
crease her  revenues  and  abandon  the  show  business  for 
good  and  all. 

The  nineteenth  century,  reviewing  her  experiences, 
exhorts  her  to  reform  her  financial  methods.  They  have 
impaired  her  standing  and  authority  in  the  past,  and 
they  cannot  be  continued  without  more  disastrous  con- 
sequences in  the  future.  And  then  the  old  century, 
having  conveyed  this  admonition,  concludes  its  religious 
message  by  addressing  a  few  words  to  the  new. 

Among  all  the  blessings  conferred  on  coming  time 
none  can  equal  in  worth  and  in  extent  the  grace  and 
influence  of  Christianity.  Admitting  her  defects  as  she 
appears  in  history,  conceding  her  melancholy  failures  at 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  619 

various  points,  nevertheless,  no  other  institution  com- 
pares with  her  in  the  range  of  her  benefactions  and  in 
the  scope  of  her  mission.  The  past  century  bears  wit- 
ness to  her  benevolence  and  beauty,  to  her  preciousness 
and  power.  Wherever  during  the  last  hundred  years  a 
wrong  has  been  righted,  a  shackle  has  been  broken,  a 
wound  has  been  healed,  a  burden  has  been  lightened, 
she  has  not  been  absent  from  the  scene.  What  the  sun 
is  to  nature,  that  Christianity  has  been  to  society.  The 
highway  of  gold  in  the  sea,  the  brilliant  and  transfigur- 
ing colors  in  the  evening  clouds,  the  flush  of  health  on 
the  cheek  of  maidenhood,  the  ripening  richness  of  fruits 
and  harvests,  the  coal-fire  blazing  on  our  hearth,  the  gas 
and  electric  light  illuminating  our  chambers,  and  the 
very  forces  by  which  machinery  is  impelled,  are  all  the 
products  of  the  chief  orb  in  the  solar  system.  And  as 
the  sun  is  the  prolific  source  of  inestimable  benefits  to 
the  earth,  so  Christianity  has  been  the  mother  of  in- 
numerable mercies  to  the  suffering  and  struggling  world. 
If  childhood  laughs  more  freely  and  more  sweetly,  if 
womanhood  walks  more  independently  and  safely,  if 
manhood  toils  more  cheerfully  and  hopefully,  if  brother- 
hood prevails  more  generally  and  absolutely,  and  if 
priesthood  has  lost  much  of  its  brutal  bigotry,  and  state- 
hood much  of  its  tyrannous  might,  she  is  to  be  praised, 
for  to  her  heavenly  ministry  these  blessings  are  largely 
due. 

The  nineteenth  century  is  saying  to  the  twentieth : 
You  cannot  afford  to  dispense  with  her  sacred  offices. 
Were  you  to  do  so,  your  activities  would  gradually  re- 
duce you  to  the  level  of  a  machine  ;  your  wealth  would 
multiply  luxuries  and  undermine  your  moral  strength  ; 


620      CHRISTIANITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

and  your  pursuit  of  amusement,  to  compensate  for  loss 
of  trust  in  diviner  things,  would  end  in  base  tastes  and 
an  indisposition  to  labor  ;  and  when  the  usual  course  of 
deterioration  had  been  run  you  would  entail  on  your 
successor  the  infamy  of  a  Pompeii  and  Herculanaeum, 
on  whose  ruined  walls  no  trace  of  Christian  morality,  or 
faith,  or  hope  has  been  discovered.  Let  the  twentieth 
century  then  be  wise  and  hospitable.  Instead  of  reject- 
ing, let  it  accept,  and  prepare  a  way  for  the  progress  and 
triumph  of  the  Cross.  In  the  former  times  its  progress 
has  been  impeded  by  harsh  criticisms,  by  senseless 
caricature,  by  heartless  ridicule,  and  ungenerous  insinu- 
ations ;  but  surely  in  the  future,  more  enlightened  and 
less  barbarous,  such  treatment  should  be  out  of  date. 

If  it  shall  prove  so,  and  if  the  services  of  Christianity 
shall  no  longer  be  depreciated,  and  if  her  importance  to 
society  is  more  candidly  recognized  by  society  itself, 
then  we  may  anticipate  for  her  grander  achievements 
in  future  years  than  in  the  past ;  and  more  than  this,  a 
development  of  her  graces  and  resources  unparalleled  in 
her  history.  She  cannot  stand  still ;  she  must  progress. 
Gradually  she  is  approximating  toward  the  realization  of 
a  sublime  ideal;  and,  conditions  favoring,  the  day  may 
not  be  far  away  when  the  world  shall  cease  to  be  dis- 
tracted by  such  solecisms  as  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
and  the  Anglican  Catholic  Church ;  and  when  from  all 
denominations  there  shall  emerge  the  final  Christianity, 
The  Christian  Catholic  Church,  holding  to  the 
universal  Fatherhood  of  God,  the  universal  brotherhood 
of  man,  the  universal  atoning  priesthood  of  Christ,  all 
wrought  together  through  the  universal  Eternal  Spirit 
into  the  universal  kingdom,   on  whose  boundaries  the 


THE    PAST    AND    FUTURE  621 

sun  shall  never  set,  and  against  whose  power  the  gates 
of  hell  shall  nevermore  prevail.  Yes,  it  is  coming !  All 
signs  point  to  its  approach,  and  however  the  hearts  of 
men  may  falter  and  fear,  and  however  they  may  con- 
strue difficulties  into  prophecies  of  dire  disaster,  the 
instructed  ear  cannot  be  deaf  to  the  sweet  promises 
sounding  in  the  closing  hours  of  the  nineteenth  century 
concerning  the  spiritual  unfolding  and  the  social  infold- 
ing of  Christianity  in  the  twentieth. 

I  hear  a  song 
Vivid  as  the  day  itself  ;  and  clear  and  strong 
As  of  a  lark — young  prophet  of  the  noon — 
Pouring  in  sunlight  his  seraphic  tune. 

He  prophesies — his  heart  is  full — his  lay 
Tells  of  the  brightness  of  the  peaceful  day  ! 
A  day  not  cloudless,  nor  devoid  of  storm, 
But  sunny  for  the  most  and  clear  and  warm. 

He  sings  of  brotherhood,  of  joy,  and  peace, 
Of  days  when  jealousies  and  hate  shall  cease  ; 
When  war  shall  die,  and  man's  progressive  mind 
Soar  unfettered  as  its  God  designed. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS  AND  WORKS 
QUOTED  OR  REFERRED  TO 


"Aids  to  Reflection,"  by  Coleridge, 

quoted,  265. 
Alkander,  referred  to,  574. 
Ambrose,  referred  to,  464. 
"American    Scholar,"    by    Emerson, 

quoted,  179. 
Amiel,  referred  to,  447. 
"  Analogy,"  Butler's,  quoted,  13. 
"  A  National  Church,"  by  Rev.  W.  R. 

Huntington,  referred  to.  407. 
"  Ancien  Regime,"  by  Taine,  referred 

to,  18. 
"  Ancient  Faith  in  Modern  Light,"  by 

Rev.  William   Brock,    quoted,  276, 

277. 
"An  Eirenicon,''  Puseyin,  referred  to, 

424. 
Antoninus,  referred  to,  285. 
"  Aper(;u  sur  la  Situation  de  la  Religion,''' 

quoted,  135,  519,  520. 
"  Apologia  pro  Vita  Sua,"  by  Newman, 

quoted,  97. 
"  Aix)stolical       Succession,"      Tract, 

quoted,  102. 
Appeal     of     the    "English     Church 

Union,"  quoted,  116. 
"  Anfange  der  Christlichen  Kirche,''  by 

Prof.  Ore,  quoted,  206. 
"A  Reculons,"  quoted,  237. 
Argyle,  Duke  of,  quoted,  211. 
"Armenian    Crisis,"    by  Greene,    re- 
ferred to,  475. 
Armitage,  quoted,  324. 
Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  quoted,  508. 
Arnold,  Dr.,  of  Rugby,  quoted,  205. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  quoted,  267,  362,  363, 

409,  518,  569. 
"A  Soul's   Tragedy,"  by  Browning, 

quoted,  161. 


Astruc,  referred  to,  254,  255. 

"A  System  of  Ethics,"  by  Friedrich 

Paulsen,  quoted,  364. 
Athanasius,  referred  to,  296,  297. 
"  Athenseum,"  quoted,  93. 
Augustine,  quoted,  108 ;  referred  to, 

81,  601. 
"Autobiography'"    of    Mrs.    Besant, 

quoted,  241. 

Bacon,  Dr.  Leonard  Woolsey,  quoted, 
19,  20 ;  referred  to,  326,  383,  388,  389, 
399. 

Bacon,  Lord,  quoted,  56. 

Bamberg,  referred  to,  424. 

Bancroft,  referred  to,  466. 

"  Baptism,"  by  Pusey,  referred  to,  113. 

Baring-Gould,  Dr.,  quoted,  193,  194. 

"  Barlaam  and  Josaphat,"  referred  to, 
91. 

Barlow,  Montague,  referred  to,  120. 

Bartlett,  Rev.  R.  E.,  referred  to,  120. 

Baxter,  Richard,  quoted,  257. 

Baylee,  Dr.,  quoted,  256. 

Beecher,  Lyman,  quoted,  20. 

"Belfast  Address,"  by  Tyndall, 
quoted,  347. 

Bellarmin,  referred  to,  438. 

Belsha.w,  referred  to,  601. 

Bengel,  referred  to,  254,  263,  264. 

Besant,  Mrs.  Annie,  quoted,  241. 

"  Between  Ca?sar  and  Jesus,"  by  Prof. 
Herron,  quoted,  85-359. 

Bible,  11,  13,  63,  70,  72,  75,  76,  144,  14.5, 
175,  177,  185, 186,  189, 190, 193,  194,  197, 
241,  249,  268,  269,  270,  272,  273,  280,  281, 
288,  289,  290,  293,  294,  297,  298,  299,  308, 
361.  364,  444,  544,  566,  594,  604,  605,  609. 

Biederman,  referred  to,  296. 

623 


624 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS    AND    WORKS 


Bingham,  quoted,  '212  213. 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  quoted,  12.  13. 
Blackeney,  E.  11.,  referred  to,  120. 
Blatchford,  Robert,  referred  to,  229. 
Bochart,  referred  to,  254. 
Boden,  Professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Ox- 
ford, referred  to,  574. 
"Book  of  Deuteronomy,"  by  Andrew 

Harper,  quoted,  605,  606. 
"  Book  of  Doctrine  and  Covenants," 

by  Hyde,  referred  to,  402. 
"Book  of  Heroes,"  referred  to,  91. 
"Book  of  Mormon,"  referred  to,  399, 

400. 
Booth,  General,  quoted,  603,  604. 
Booth,  Mr.  Charles,  quoted,  222. 
Boston,  referred  to,  314. 
Bourrier,  quoted,  133. 
"British  Medical  Journal"  of  June, 

1898,  and  June,  1899,  referred  to,  391. 
"British  Weekly,"  quoted,  614. 
Brock,  Rev.  William,  quoted,  276,  277. 
Brown,  Rev.  Archibald,  quoted,  614. 
Brown,  Baldwin,  quoted,  40,  205,  325, 

326. 
Browning,  Robert,  quoted,  62,  152, 161, 

164,  394. 
Bruce,     Prof.     Alexander    Balmain, 

quoted,  566,  567. 
Bryce,  Prof.,  referred  to,  511 ;  quoted, 

512. 
Biichner,  referred  to,  368. 
Burgon,  Dean,  quoted,  256. 
Burns,  Robert,  quoted,  178-245. 
Butler,  Bishop,  quoted,  13. 
Byron,  quoted,  455. 

Caine,  Hall,  referred  to,  537. 

Caird,     Edward,     referred     to,    161, 

quoted,  375,  376. 
Caird,  Principal,  quoted,  340. 
Calvin,  referred  to,  601. 
"  Campanerthal,''  by  Richter,  quoted, 

15S. 
Campbell,  Dr.  Macleod,  referred  to, 

330. 
Canterbury,   Archbishop  of,  referred 

to,  607. 
Cappellus,  lAidovicus,  referred  to,  254. 
"  Cautions  for  the  Times,"  by  Whate- 

ly,  referred  to,  99. 
Carlyle,   Tiiomas,  quoted,  34,  39,  113, 


144,   170,  172,  225,    226,  376,  403,  485, 
486,  583. 
Carnegie,  Mr.  Andrew,  quoted,  2$9. 
Carnot,  referred  to,  48. 

"Catholicism,"     by    Principal    Fair- 
bairn,  quoted,  66,  67,  93,  123, 130,  132. 

Cave,  Principal,  referred  to,  346. 

Census  of  1890.  referred  to,  407. 

"  Century  Magazine,"  quoted,  501. 

Chalmers,  Dr.,  referred  to,  330. 

Chang  Chih  Tung,  quoted,  529. 

Channiug,  referred  to,  447. 

Chapman,  quoted,  322. 

"Characteristics,"  quoted,  171. 

Charcot,  referred  to,  391,  392. 

Chateaubriand,  referred  to,  336. 

Chemnitz,  quoted,  258. 

"Childhood  of  the  English  Nation," 
by  Armitage,  quoted,  324. 

"  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire,"  by 
Ramsay,  referred  to,  445. 

"  Chretien  Pran<^ais,''  referred  to,  133. 

"Christianity,"  by  Dr.  Clarke,  quoted, 
10. 

"  Christmas  Eve,"  by  Browning,   re- 
ferred to,  IGl,  164. 

"  Christ   in    Modern    Theology,"    by 
Fairbairn,  referred  to,  56,  57,  249,  250. 

"Christian  Year,"  by  Keble,  referred 
to,  laS,  104. 

"Christianity     and     Socialism,"     by 
Nicholas,  quoted,  223. 

"  Church  and  Faith,"  referred  to,  120; 
quoted,  121. 

"Church  Catechisms,"  by  Seeker,  re- 
ferred to,  57. 

Church,  Dean,  referred  to,  98,  99,  102. 

"Church    History,"    by   Timson,    re- 
ferred to.  127. 

'•  Claims  of   Christianity,"  by  W.  S. 
Lilly,  referred  to,  135,  136. 

Clarke,  Dr.  W.  N.,  quoted,  10, 11,  53,  56. 

Clemens  Romanus,  quoted,  260. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  referred  to,  81. 

ClilTord,  Dr.  John,  quoted,  609. 

Cobden,  quoted,  206. 

Coghlan,  Mr.,  (juoted,  538. 

Coleridge,     Samuel    Taylor,    quoted, 
100, 157,  252,  253,  265,  266,  323,  335. 

"  Cologne  Gazette,"  referred  to,  13.3. 

"  Compte  Rendu  du  Congrva  de  Eeims," 
quoted,  135. 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS    AND    WORKS 


625 


Comte,  Augaste,  quoted,  375,  376,  377, 
378. 

Coudorcet,  referred  to,  40. 

"  Confessions  of  an  Inquiring  Spirit," 
by  Coleridge,  quoted,  265. 

"  Conflict  Between  Religion  and  Sci- 
ence," by  Draper,  quoted,  70. 

Conley,  J.  W.,  d.  d.,  quoted,  396,  397. 

"  Constitutional  History,"  by  Stubbs, 
quoted,  590. 

Convention,  decree  of,  quoted,  45,  46. 

"Conversations,"  by  Goethe,  referred 
to,  156. 

Coudert,  Frederick  R.,  quoted,  291. 

Coventry,  referred  to,  17. 

Crell,  referred  to,  601. 

"Crimean  War,"  by  Kinglake,  re- 
ferred to,  475. 

Croly,  Dr.,  quoted,  4. 

Cromwell,  quoted,  306. 

Crozier,  Mr.  Beattie,  quoted,  458. 

Danton,  quoted,  45. 

Darwin,  quoted,  370. 

"David  Elginbrod,"  by  Macdonald, 
referred  to,  148. 

Dawson,  Sir  William,  quoted,  584. 

"  De  Civitate  Dei,''  by  Augustine,  re- 
ferred to,  81. 

Defoe,  referred  to,  17,  576. 

"  Degeneration,"  by  Max  Nordau, 
quoted,  94,  95;  referred  to,  130. 

De  Pre-ssense,  referred  to,  48. 

"De  Principiis,'-  by  Origen,  referred 
to,  81. 

"  Der  KathoUzismus  als  Prinzip  des 
Fortschritts,''  by  Professor  Schell,  re- 
ferred to,  136. 

"Der  Eeform-katholizismus,''  by  Dr. 
Joseph  Miiller,  referred  to,  136. 

Descartes,  referred  to,  336. 

Desmoulins,  Camille,  quoted,  38,  39. 

De  Tocqueville,  quoted,  228. 

"  Development  of  Theology,"  by  Prof. 
Otto  Pfieiderer,  quoted,  32,  33,  305, 
334. 

"Development,"  by  Newman,  re- 
ferred to,  109. 

"Diplomacy,"  by  Lyman,  referred  to, 
465. 

" Divus  Ca'sar,''  by  Froude,  referred 
to,  428. 


Dixon,  Hepworth,  referred  to,  399,  100. 
Djelalledin,  referred  to,  73. 
Dollinger    Professor,  quoted,  415,  424, 

434,  435,  441,  442. 
Donaldson,  quoted,  315. 
Dorchester,  Dr.  Daniel,  quoted,  21,  137, 

138,  523,  574,  582,  583. 
Dorner,   Doctor,   referred   to,  32,  306, 

313,  341. 
Draper,  Doctor,  quoted,  70,  309. 
"Dream  of   John  Ball,"  by  William 

Morris,  quoted,  179. 
Drummond,  Henry,  quoted,  258. 
Drury,  Principal,  referred  to,  120. 
"  Dublin  Review,"  quoted,  434,  435. 
"  Du  Papa,''  by  de  Maistre,  referred 

to,  336. 

"  Ecce  Homo,"  referred  to,  345. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  quoted,  21,  29,  30, 
832. 

Eichhorn,  referred  to,  255. 

"£/(f?u'co?i,"  anonymous,  referred  to, 
437  ;  quoted,  438. 

Emerson,  quoted,  179. 

Endicott,  Governor,  quoted,  449. 

English  "Confession,"  quoted.  116. 

Epictetus,  referred  to,  285. 

"Epistle  of  St.  John,"  by  Alkander, 
referred  to,  574. 

Erasmus,  referred  to,  323. 

"  Edauterungen,"  by  Herder,  referred 
to,  57. 

Erskine,  quoted,  335,  3.36. 

Erskine,  Ralph,  quoted,  314,  315. 

Erskine,  Thomas,  of  Linlathen,  quo- 
ted, 329,  330. 

"Essays  and  Reviews,"  by  Bishop 
Wilberforce,  referred  to,  255. 

"  Essays,"  by  Frederick  Denison  Mau- 
rice, referred  to,  325. 

"Essays  in  Psychical  Research,"  by 
Miss  X.,  referred  to,  388. 

"  Essay  toward  a  Proposal  for  Catliolic 
Communion,"  by  Doctor  Pusey,  re 
ferred  to,  437. 

"Ethics,"  by  Martensen,  referred  to, 
205. 

Everts,  Rev.  W.  W.,  referred  to,  302. 

"  Evolution  of  Religion,"  Caird,  quo- 
ted. 376. 

Ewald,  referred  to,  292. 


2P 


626 


NDEX  OF  AUTHORS  AND  WORKS 


Exeter,  Bishop  of,  quoted,  279. 
"ExjMjsitor"  of  February,  1885,  quo 
ted,  258. 

Fiiirbairn,  Doctor,  quoted,  53,  56,  66, 

67,  93,  123,  130,  132,  249,  250,  295,  319. 
Farrar,  Deau,  referred  to,  120,  209. 
"  Fasting,"  by  Pusey,  referred  to,  113. 
Fawcett,  Mrs.  referred  to,  570. 
"  Fecondite,"  by  Zola,  referred  to,  537, 

538. 
"Federation  of   Free  Churches,"  by 

John  Clifford,  D.  d.,  quoted,  609. 
"Federalist,"  quoted,  416. 
Feuerbach,  referred  to,  366 ;  quoted, 

366,  367. 
Fichto,  quoted,  249. 
Fielding,  referred  to,  17. 
"  First    Principles    of    Ecclesiastical 

Truth,"  by  J.  Baldwin  Brown,  quo- 
ted, 40,  325,  32(1. 
Fisher,  Prof.  Geo.  P.,  quoted,  280,  281. 
"  Fool  of  Quality,"  by  Henry  Brooke, 

referred  to,  35. 
"For  a'  that  and  a'  that,"  by  Burns, 

quoted,  178. 
"  Fors  Ciavigcra,''  by  Ruskin,  referred 

to,  176. 
"Fortnightly   Review,"   referred    to, 

578. 
''Foundersof  Religion,"  by  Dollinger, 

quoted,  441,  442. 
"Fourfold  State,"  by  Boston,  quoted, 

314. 
Freeman,  referred  to,  475. 
Fremantle,  Dean,  referred  to,  205. 
"  French     Revolution,"    by    Carlyle, 

quoted,  39. 
Froebel,  referred  to,  603. 
Frothingham,  quoted,  164. 
Froude,  R.  H.,  quoted,  108,  428. 
Fuller,  Andrew,  referred  to,  330. 

Gasquet,  quoted,  391. 
"General  Assembly,"  quoted,  20. 
"Gentleman's  Magazine,"  quoted,  12. 
"  Geschichie  Jesu von  Nazara,''  by  Keim, 

referred  to,  345. 
Gibbon,  referred  to,  25. 
Gladstone,  quoted,  279,  372. 
"God  and    the  Bible,"   by  Matthew 

Arnold,  referred  to,  362. 


Goethe,  quoted,  156,  310,  370,  372. 
Goldsmith,  Oliver,  quoted,  12. 
Gordon,  Doctor,  quoted,  502. 
"  Gospel  of  the  Secular  Life,"  by  Deau 

Fremantle,  referred  to,  205. 
Gray,  quoted,  178,  315. 
Greene,  N.  W.,  referred  to,  402,  475,  583. 
Greg,  Percy,  quoted,  367,  368. 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  quoted,  76. 
Gregory  the  Great,  quoted,  260. 
Grotius,  referred  to,  254. 
Guibert,    Direct.    Seminary    of    Issy, 

quoted,  134. 
Guizot,  referred  to,  376,  380,  483. 
Gunnison,  referred  to,  402. 

Hagenbach,  referred  to,  32,  59,  60,  61, 
306, 

Hardy,  Thomas,  quoted,  177,  537. 

Harms,  Pastor,  referred  to,  426. 

Harnack,  Professor,  quoted,  75.  439. 

Harper,  Andrew,  quoted,  005,  606. 

Harrent,  M.  I'Abbe,  quoted,  133. 

Harris,  J.  Henry,  quoted,  16. 

Harris,  Mr.  J.  Henry,  referred  to,  209. 

Harris,  T.  L.,  quoted,  141. 

Hartmann,  Von,  referred  to,  381. 

Hatch,  referred  to,  445. 

Hegel,  referred  to,  341,  458. 

Heine,  Heinrich,  referred  to,  23,  91, 
178,251,  595. 

Henson,  Mr.  Hensley,  quoted,  587. 

Herder,  quoted,  55,  57,  264,  302,  328,  334, 
340,  452. 

Hereford,  Lord  Bishop  of,  quoted,  121. 

Herodotus,  referred  to,  285. 

Herron,  Professor,  quoted,  85,  359. 

"Historic  Doubts,"  by  Whately,  re- 
ferred to,  99. 

"History  of  American  Christianity," 
by  Bacon,  quoted,  19,  20,  326,  383,  388, 
389,  399. 

"History  of  Caricature,"  by  Wright, 
quoted,  197. 

"  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  by  Lecky,  quoted,  14,  10, 
32. 

"History  of  the  English  People,"  by 
Greene,  quoted.  583. 

"  History  of  the  Church  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,"  by  Hagenbach,  re- 
ferred to,  32,  60,  61. 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS    AND    WORKS 


627 


"History  of  People  of  the  United 
States,"  by  Mac  Master,  quoted,  4, 
22,  35,  36,  4G6. 

"History  of  Popes,"  by  Macauhiy, 
quoted,  70. 

"  History  of  Protestant  Theology,"  by 
Dorner,  referred  to,  32,  313. 

"History  of  the  Revolution,"  by 
Michelet,  referred  to,  48. 

"  History  of  Intellectual  Develop- 
ment," by  Mr.  Beattie  Crozier,  quo- 
ted, 458. 

Holyoake,  George  Jacob,  quoted,  453, 
454. 

"Holy  Grail,"  referred  to,  91. 

Hooker,  Bishop,  quoted,  257. 

Hopkins,  referred  to,  330. 

Home,  Bishop,  quoted,  264,  265. 

Horton,  Rev.  R.  F.,  quoted,  278. 

Howells,  Wm.  Dean,  referred  to,  537. 

Hugo,  Victor,  quoted,  182,  183, 184,  537, 

Huntington,  Rev.  W.  R.,  referred  to, 
407. 

Huxley,  quoted,  368,  369,  370,  567. 

Hyde,  referred  to,  402. 

Ibsen,  referred  to,  537,  602. 

"If  the  Dead  Wake,"  by  Ibsen,  re- 
ferred to,  602. 

Ignatius  of  Antioch,  referred  to,  410. 

"  Illustrations  of  the  Influence  of  the 
Mind  over  the  Body,"  by  Tuke,  re- 
ferred to.  391. 

"  Imitation  of  Christ,"  referred  to,  375. 

"Impartial  Testimony,"  by  'Land, 
quoted,  314. 

"Independent,"  the,  referred  to,  .575. 

Ingersoll,  Colonel,  quoted,  288.  290. 

"In  Memoriam,"  referred  to.  104,  105. 

"Inspiration  and  the  Bible,"  quoted, 
278. 

"Inspiration  of  Scriptures,"  by  Wil- 
liam Lee,  quoted,  249. 

"  Institutiojies  Tlieologix,''  Preface,  by 
Wegscheider,  quoted,  305. 

"Introduction  to  Theology  and  Its 
Literature,"  by  Principal  Cave,  re- 

■    f erred  to,  346. 

Ireland,  Archbishop,  quoted,  50. 

"Is  Involuntary  Servitude  Justifia- 
ble?" by  Thomas  Clarkson,  referred 
to.  214. 


Jefferson,  quoted,  21. 

Jennings,  quoted,  121,  127,  445. 

Jerome,  referred  to,  291. 

"Jesus  Christ  and  the  Present  Age," 

by  Ciuipman,  quoted,  322. 
Johnson,  Doctor,  quoted,  610. 
Jorg,  referred  to,  479. 
Joseph  us,  referred  to,  260. 
Jovinian,  quoted,  418. 
Justin  Martyr,  referred  to,  81. 
Juvenal,  referred  to,  291. 

Kant,  referred  to,  333,  372,  375. 

Keble,  referred  to,  601. 

Keim,  referred  to,  345. 

Kent,  referred  to,  604. 

Kettler,  Bishop  of  Mayence,  quoted, 

479. 
Kinglake,  Mr.,  quoted,  473,  475. 
Kingsley,  Charles,  quoted,  1. 
Kipling,  quoted,  50;i. 
Kleist,  H.  von,  quoted,  94. 
Kliefoth,  referred  to,  205. 
Kostlin,  referred  to,  264. 
Kossuth,  Louis,  quoted,  186. 

"Labour  in  the  Longest  Reign,"  by 
Sidney  Webb,  quoted,  225. 

Lactantius,  quoted,  53. 

Land,  referred  to,  .314. 

Lanier,  Sidney,  quoted,  l«i. 

Langland,  William,  quoted,  195,  196. 

"  La  Renaissance  CathoUque  en  Angle- 
ierre  au  XlXe.  Steele,"'  etc.,  by  Paul 
Thureau-Dangin,  quoted,  120. 

Latimer,  referred  to,  475. 

"Latter  Day  Pamphlets,"  by  Carlyle, 
quoted,  485,  486. 

"Latter  Saints,"  by  Gunnison,  re- 
ferred to,  402. 

Law,  referred  to.  26. 

"Leaders  of  Thought,"  by  Sinclair, 
quoted,  12. 

"Lead,  Kindly  Light,"  by  Newman, 
referred  to,  107. 

"  Lehcn,"  referred  to,  296. 

"  Lcben  Jesu,"  by  Strauss,  referred  to, 
343. 

Lecky,  quoted,  14,  16,  32,  583. 

Le  Clerc,  of  Amsterdam,  quoted,  251. 

"  Le  Clerge  Franqais  e?i  1890,"  quoted, 
134,  .520. 


628 


INDEX    OF   AUTHORS    AND    WORKS 


"Lectures  on  Modern  History,"  by 
Schlegel,  quoted,  159,  4G0. 

"  L'Edncatcur-Aputre,"  by  Guibert, 
quoted,  l;>4. 

Lee,  William,  referred  to,  249. 

Leo  XIII.,  quoted,  222. 

Leopardi,  quoted,  351. 

"  Le  Fere  Ccloite,"  by  Naville,  quoted, 
379,  380. 

"Letters"  of  Frederick  Robertson, 
quoted,  345,  316. 

"Letters,"  by  J.  B.  Mozley,  referred 
to,  101. 

"Letters  on  the  Study  of  Theology," 
by  Luther,  quoted,  61. 

"Leslie's  Weekly,"  quoted,  495,  490. 

"  Les  Martyrs,''  by  Chateaubriand,  re- 
ferred to,  33(i. 

"  Les  Miserablcs,'''  by  Victor  Hugo,  re- 
ferred to,  537. 

Lessing,  referred  to,  279. 

"Levana,"  by  Richter,  quoted,  154. 

"  Liberty  of  Prophesy ings,"  by  Jeremy 
Taylor,  referred  to,  358. 

Liddon,  Henry  P.,  referred  to,  115,  379. 

"Life  of  Cardinal  Manning,"  by  Pur- 
cell,  referred  to,  115. 

"  Life  of  Milton,"  by  Robert  Vaughan, 
quoted,  150. 

"Life  of  Pusey,"  by  Liddon,  referred 
to,  115. 

"  Lifeof  Seventh  Earl  of  Shaftesbury," 
Bingham,  quoted,  212,  213. 

Lilly,  Mr.  W.  S.,  quoted,  1.35,  1.36. 

"Limits  of  Religious  Thought,"  by 
Dean  Mansel,  quoted,  369. 

"  Literature  and  Dogma,"  by  Matthew 
Arnold,  referred  to,  362. 

Lombroso,  Professor,  quoted,  185. 

"  Lourdcs,"  by  Zola,  referred  to,  391. 

Lowell,  quoted,  185.  424,  455,  585. 

Lucan,  referred  to,  428. 

"  UUnivers,''  quoted,  2.38. 

Luthardt,  referred  to,  76,  298,  301,  302, 
596,  597. 

Luther,  quoted,  61,  264,  297. 

Lyman,  referred  to,  465, 

"  Lyra  Apostolica,^^  quoted,  107. 

"Lyrical  Ballads,"  by  Coleridge  and 
Wordsworth,  referred  to,  33, 

Macaulay,  Lord,  quoted,  69,  70. 


Macdonald,  George,  referred  to,  148, 
149,  509. 

MacMaster,  quoted,  4,  22,  35,  36. 

Madison,  James,  quoted,  416. 

Maistre,  Joseph  de,  referred  to,  336. 

Mallock,  Mr.,  quoted,  459. 

Manebian,  M.,  referred  to,  338. 

Manning,  Cardinal,  quoted,  76,  222. 

Mansel,  Dean,  quoted,  369. 

"  Manual  of  Church  History,"  by  Jen- 
nings, quoted,  121,  127,  445. 

"  March  of  the  Workers,"  by  William 
Morris,  quoted,  230. 

Markham,  Edwin,  quoted,  171, 182, 183, 
187,  189,  190. 

Martensen,  referred  to,  205,  329,  340. 

Martial,  referred  to,  291. 

Martineau,  Doctor,  quoted,  53,  56,  583, 
600,  601. 

Massey,  Gerald,  quoted,  569. 

Mather,  Cotton,  referred  to,  332. 

Matheson,  referred  to,  378. 

Maurice,  Frederick  Denison,  referred 
to,  325,  329. 

Mazzini,  quoted,  204,  408. 

Mearns,  Doctor,  335. 

Mediums,  rise  of,  383. 

" Meditations sur  la  Religion  Chretienne,'" 
by  Guizot,  quoted,  380. 

Melville,  Canon,  quoted,  436. 

"Memoir,  Joseph  Mazzini,"  quoted, 
488. 

"  Memoires  snr  Carnot,"  referred  to,  4S. 

Mendes,  Rabbi,  referred  to,  2s.s, 
quoted,  290. 

Menegoz,  M.,  referred  to,  338,  339. 

"  Merrie  England,"  by  Robert  P.latc]i- 
ford,  referred  to,  229. 

Messner,  referred  to,  424. 

Meyrick.  Canon,  referred  to,  120. 

Michelet,  referred  to,  45,  48,  297,  298. 

Mill,  quoted,  55.  57,  232. 

Milton,  quoted,  249,  489,  588. 

Miss  X,  referred  to,  388. 

"Missionary  Herald,"  quoted,  491. 

"Missions  and  Politics  in  Asia,"  by 
Speer,  quoted,  502. 

IMivart,  St.  George,  quoted,  578. 

"Modern  Painters,"  by  Ruskin,  re- 
ferred to,  173,  175. 

Montgomery,  James,  quoted.  169. 

Moule,  Professor,  referred  to,  120. 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS    AND    WORKS 


629 


Mouravieff,  quoted,  472. 

"Moral  Truths  of  Christianity,"  by 
Luthardt,  quoted,  5%,  597. 

More,  Hannah,  referred  to,  583. 

"Mormonism,"  by  N.  W.  Greene,  re- 
ferred to,  402. 

Morris,  William,  quoted,  179,  230. 

Mozley,  James,  quoted,  104,  283. 

Miiller,  Dr.  Joseph,  referred  to,  136. 

Muller,  Johann  Von,  402,  403. 

Miiller,  Julius,  referred  to,  315. 

Miiller,  Max,  referred  to,  257. 

"  Munera  Fidveris,"  176. 

"  Muse,"  by  Edwin  Markham,  quoted, 
182,  183. 

"Mystics,"  by  Vaughan,  quoted,  248. 

"Narrative  of  Surprising  Conver- 
sions," by  Jonathan  Edwards, 
quoted,  29,  30. 

"Naturalism  and  Agnosticism,"  by 
Ward,  referred  to,  371. 

Naville,  quoted,  379,  380. 

"  Keue  Evang.,"  by  Messner,  referred 
to,  424. 

"  New  America,"  by  Hepworth  Dixon, 
referred  to,  399,  400. 

Newman,  Doctor,  quoted,  89,  97,  101, 
102,  103,  104,  105,  106,  107,  108,  109, 
113,  373,  400. 

"  Nibelungenlied,"  referred  to,  91. 

Nicholas,  W.,  quoted,  223. 

Nicholas  I.,  Tsar,  quoted,  473. 

"Nineteenth  Century,"  referred  to, 
578. 

Nitzsch,  referred  to,  315. 

Nordau,  Max,  quoted,  94,  95,  130,  382. 

"North  American  Review,"  referred 
to,  288. 

Novalis,  referred  to,  93. 

"  G^uvres,"  Voltaire's,  quoted,  19. 

"Official  Year-Book  of  the  Church  of 
England,"  of  1900,  referred  to,  2:34. 

"  Old  Faiths  in  a  New  Light,"  by  New- 
man Smyth,  referred  to,  280. 

"On  Constitution  of  Church  and 
State,"  quoted,  100. 

Ore,  Professor,  quoted,  206. 

"Organization  of  Early  Churches," 
by  Hatch,  referred  to,  445. 

Origen,  referred  to,  81. 


"Origin  of  Language,"  by  Herder, 
referred  to,  60. 

"  Our  Country,"  by  Rev.  Josiah 
Strong,  quoted,  580. 

"Outlines  Christian  Theology,"  by 
Clarke,  referred  to,  56. 

"Outlines  of  a  Philosophy  of  Relig- 
ion," by  Auguste  Sabatier,  quoted, 
7,  8,  308 ;  referred  to,  57,  64,  66. 

Oxenham,  referred  to,  434. 

"Oxford,"  by  Prof.  Goldwin  Smith, 
referred  to,  32. 

"Oxford  Movement,"  by  Dean 
Church,  referred  to,  98,  99,  102. 

"  Palace  of  Art,"  by  Tennyson,  quoted, 

563,  564. 
Parker,  Theodore,  quoted,  20. 
Pascal,  referred  to,  601. 
"Past     and     Present,"    by    Carlyle, 

quoted,  170. 
Paulsen,  Friedrich,  quoted,  333,  364. 
"  Pax  Vobiscum,''  by  Bambei-g,  referred 

to,  424. 
Pestalozzi,  referred  to,  603. 
Peter,  St.,  quoted,  72. 
Ptleiderer,  Prof.  Otto,  quoted,  32,  33. 

305,  316,  334. 
Philo,  referred  to,  259. 
"  Philosophy  of  History,"  by  Schlegel, 

quoted,  461. 
Plautus,  quoted,  285. 
Pliny,  quoted,  367. 
Pobyedonostseff,  quoted,  73,  199,  200. 

513. 
"  Political  Economy  of  Art,"  by  Rus- 

kin,  referred  to,  176. 
"  Politique  Positive,"  quoted,  377,  378. 
Potter,  Bishop  Henry  C,  quoted,  607. 
"  Problem  of  Religious  Progress,"  by 

Doctor  Dorchester,   referred  to,  21, 

137,  138,  523,  582,  583. 
Proctor,  quoted,  279,  280. 
"Progress  of  the  Spirit  of  Man,"  by 

Condorcet,  referred  to,  40. 
"  Prometheus  "  of  Shelley,  quoted,  382. 
"  Prospice,"  by  Browning,  quoted,  163. 
Puffendorf,  referred  to,  604. 
Pulsford,  Dr.  J.,  quoted,  422,  423. 
Purcell,  referred  to,  115. 
Pusey,   Doctor,   referred   to,  255,  424, 

437. 


630 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS    AND    WORKS 


Ciucnk'i-,  Yves  Lo,  (lUok-d,  235,  2:M,  2;!8. 
"truest     of     Failli,"     by     Saunders, 

quoted,  57,  58,  372,  373. 
"  Question  RdUjkuse  tVOvient,'"  quoted, 

473. 

"Rambler,"  quoted,  111. 
Rauisay,  referred  to,  445. 
"  Reflectionsof  a  Russian  Statesman," 

by  Pobyedouostseff,  quoted,  73,  I'JU, 

200. 
"  Reflexions  sur  VEvangile  da  Salut,''  by 

Menegoz,  referred  to,  339. 
''  Rejorme  Sociale,''  quoted,  237. 
"  Religion,"    by   Schleiermucher,   re- 
ferred to,  39. 
"Religion    and    Philosophy    in    Ger- 
many," by  Heine,  referred  to,  23. 
"Religious  Progress"  by  Dorchester, 

referred  to,  574. 
"  Religious  Thought  in  Britain  in  the 

Nineteenth  Century,"  quoted,  100, 

325,  330. 
"Remains,"  Froude,  referred  to,  104. 
Renan,  quoted,  298,  344. 
"Report  of  the  Registrar  General," 

referred  to,  408. 
Resolution  of  Paris,  quoted,  45. 
"Resurrection,"  by  Tolstoy,  referred 

to,  565,  5G6. 
Reuchlin,  referred  to,  323. 
"  Reunion  of  the  Churches,"  by  Prof. 

Dollinger,  quoted,  415,  424,  435. 
"Review  of    Reviews,"  quoted,   189, 

538. 
Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  quoted,  300,  3<)2. 
Richter,  Jean   Paul,  quoted,  152,  153, 

154. 
Riggs,  quoted,  26. 
Ritschl,  referred  to,  205;  quoted,  206, 

296. 
"  Robert  Elsmere,"  referred  to,  1  is. 
"  Robert  Falconer,"  referred  to,  148. 
"Robert  Raikes,"  by  Harris,  quoted. 

16,  209. 
Robertson,  Frederick,  quoted,  267,  311 

345,  346.  .5.35,  536. 
Robespierre's  manifesto,  quoted,  45. 
Rochester,  Bishop  of,  quoted,  230. 
Roger,  Pastor,  referred  to,  431. 
Rollins,  Governor,  of  New  Hampshire, 

referred  to,  524, 


"  Rome  from  the  Inside,"  by  Bourrier, 

<iUoted,  133. 
Rossetti,  Christina,  quoted,  509. 
Rousseau,  referred  to,  32. 
Ruskin,  John,  quoted,  173-177, 198,  252, 

593,  595,  606. 
"  Ru.ssia  and    Turkey,"   by  Latimer, 

referred  to,  475. 

Sabatier,  Auguste,  quoted,  7,  8,  54,  55, 
57,  64,  66,  306,  308,  337,  339. 

Sainte-Beuve,  quoted,  447. 

Sanday,  Professor,  referred  to,  268. 

"  Sartor  Resartus,"  quoted,  171,  225, 
226. 

"  Saturday  Review,"  quoted,  408,  409. 

"  Saul,"  by  Robert  Browning,  quoted, 
62. 

Saunders,  Mr.  Bailey,  quoted,  57,  58, 
371 ,  372,  373. 

"  Saving  Truths,"  by  Luthardt.quoted, 
76. 

SchalT,  quoted,  267. 

Schell,  Profes.sor,  referred  to,  136. 

"  Schema  Sacnun,''  quoted,  313. 

Schiller,  quoted,  155,  276,  480,  571. 

Schlegel,  quoted,  459,  460,  461. 

Schlegel,  August  William  and  Fred- 
erick, referred  to,  92,  93  ;  quoted,  93. 

Schleiermacher,  referred  to,  39,  334, 
335,  340. 

Schneckenburger.  quoted,  25. 

Schopenhauer,  quoted,  381,  4.58,  567. 

"Science  and  Religion,"  by  Draper, 
referred  to,  309. 

"Science  and  Health,"  by  Mrs.  Mary 
Baker  Eddy,  referred  to,  390,  392 ; 
quoted,  394,  395,  396,  397. 

"Science  and  Morals,"  by  Huxley, 
quoted,  369. 

Scudder,  quoted,  10,  11. 

Seeker,  Archbishop,  quoted,  15,  56,57. 

"  Secret  History  of  the  Oxford  Move- 
ment," quoted,  436. 

Seeley,  Professor,  referred  to,  330,  009. 

Senancours,  referred  to,  447. 

Seneca,  referred  to,  428. 

"Serious  Call  and  C:hristian  Perfec- 
tion," by  Law,  referred  to,  26. 

Sermon  before  Baltimore  Council,  by 
Archbishop  Ireland,  quoted,  50. 

"  Sermons,"  by  Clarke,  quoted,  11. 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS    AND    WORKS 


631 


"Sei'mons,"  by  Frederick  W.  Robert- 
son, quoted,  535,  530. 
"Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture,"  by 

Ruskin,  referred  to,  173. 
Sluiftesbury,  Earl  of,  quoted,  211-213, 

222. 
Sliedd,  referred  to,  30G. 
Shelley,  quoted,  178,  282. 
"  Siani,"  by  Chaug  Chih  Tung,  quoted, 

529. 
Sigouruey,  Mrs.,  quoted,  405. 
"  Sin,"  by  Julius  Miiller,  referred  to, 

315. 
"Sinlessness  of  Christ,"  by  Ullman, 

referred  to,  315. 
Smith,  Chancellor,  referred  to,  120. 
Smith,  Prof.  Goldwin,  referred  to,  32, 

286. 
Smith,  George  Adam,  referred  to,  268. 
Smith,  Sidney,  referred  to,  576. 
Smith,  Prof.  W.  R.,  quoted,  270,  271. 
"Social  Aspects  of  Christianity,"  by 

Canon  Westcott,  quoted,  229. 
"  Social  Ideals,"  by  Scudder,  quoted, 

10, 11. 
"  Social  Life  in  Scotland,"  by  Graham, 

referred  to,  315. 
Spaulding,  Solomon,  referred  to,  401. 
"Spectator,"  quoted,  33,  137,  138,  231, 

383,  384. 
Spcer,  quoted,  502. 
Spencer,    Herbert,    referred    to,    290, 

368,  372,  374. 
Spinoza,  referred  to,  254. 
Smollett,  referred  to,  17. 
Smyth,  Newman,  referred  to,  280,  283, 

284. 
Stade,  quoted,  507. 
Stalker,  Doctor,  quoted,  365. 
"  Standard,  The,"  quoted,  301,  302. 
Stanley,  Henry  M.,  quoted,  501. 
"  Stones  of  Venice,"   by  Ruskin,  re- 
ferred to,  173. 
Strauss,  David,  quoted,  353. 
"Stray  Thoughts  of  a  Lifetime,"  by 

Dr.  J.  Pulsford,  quoted,  422,  423. 
Strong,  Rev.  E.  E.,  D.  d.,  quoted,  494. 
Strong,  Dr.  Josiah,  qvioted,  524,  580. 
St.  Simon,  referred  to,  370. 
Stubbs,  quoted,  590. 
"Study  of  Religion,"  by  Martineau, 

referred  to,  56. 


"  Studies  in  Poetry,"  by  Frothingham, 

quoted,  164. 
Sumner,  Charles,  quoted,  457. 
"  Sursum  C'orda,"  referred  to,  366. 
Swedenborg,  referred  to,  248. 
"Synthetic  Philosophy,"  by  Herbert 

Spencer,  referred  to,  290. 

"  Tablet  "  the,  referred  to,  578. 

Tacitus,  referred  to,  2tt5. 

Taine,  referred  to,  18. 

Tauler,  referred  to,  601. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  referred  to,  358. 

Telemachus,  referred  to,  464. 

Temple,  Sir  Richard,  referred  to,  120. 

"Temporal  Mission  of  Holy  Ghost," 
by  Manning,  quoted,  76. 

Tennyson,  quoted,  164,  165,  178,  179, 
303,  328,  329,  404,  563,  564. 

Tennyson,  Hallam,  quoted,  440. 

Thompson,  quoted,  351. 

"Thoughts  for  Critical  Times  in  the 
Church,"  by  Hensley  Hensou, 
quoted,  587. 

"Thoughts  on  Protestantism,"  by 
Harnack,  quoted,  439. 

"  Three  Reverences,"  by  Goethe, 
quoted,  156. 

"The  Areopagitica,"  by  ISIilton, 
quoted,  588. 

"The  Christian,"  by  Hall  Caine,  re- 
ferred to,  537. 

"The  Christian  Commonwealth,"  by 
Rev.  J.  Baldwin  Brown,  referred  to, 
205. 

"The  Christology  of  Jesus,"  by 
Stalker,  quoted,  365. 

"The  Church  and  the  French  Revo- 
lution." by  De  Pressense,  referred 
to,  48. 

"The  Divine  Comedy,"  referred  to, 
375. 

"  The  End  the  Test  of  a  Progressive 
Revelation,"  by  Mozley,  quoted,  283. 

"  The  Gospel  and  Modern  Substi- 
tutes," by  A.  S.  Matheson,  quoted, 
377,  378. 

"The  Great  Enigma,"  by  W.  S.  Lilly, 
quoted,  135,  136. 

"  The  Guardian,"  referred  to,  110. 

"The  Holy  Eucharist,"  by  Pusey,  re- 
ferred to,  113. 


632 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS    AND    WORKS 


"The  Ideal  and  the  Actual  Life,"  by 
Schiller,  quoted,  155. 

"The  Man  with  the  Hoe,"  by  Mark- 
hain,  quoted,  171. 

"The  New  Era,"  by  Doctor  Strong, 
quoted,  524. 

"The  Ritschlian  Theology,"  quoted, 
20(). 

"The  Romantic  School,"  by  Heine, 
quoted,  91. 

"The  Standard,"  quoted,  3%,  397. 

"The  AVonderful  Century,"  quoted, 
381. 

Thureau-Dangin,  Paul,  quoted,  118- 
120. 

"  Times,"  London,  quoted,  579. 

Timson,  referred  to,  127. 

Tolstoy,  referred  to,  537,  565,  5G6,  G02. 

Tomlinson,  I.  T.,  referred  to.  120. 

"Toothpick  for  Swearers,"  by  Don- 
aldson, quoted,  315. 

"Training  of  Children,"  quoted,  603, 
601. 

Treck,  referred  to,  93. 

Trent,  Bishop  of,  quoted,  480. 

Tulloch,  referred  to,  325,  330. 

"Turks  in  Europe,"  by  Freeman,  re- 
ferred to,  475. 

Turretin,  referred  to,  257. 

Tuke,  referred  to,  391. 

Twesten,  referred  to,  315. 

Tyndall,  quoted,  347,  368. 

Ulhnan,  referred  to,  315. 

"  University    Sermons,"    by    Liddon, 

quoted,  378,  379. 
"  UntcrricJit,"  referred  to,  296. 
"  Unto  this  Last,"  by  Ruskin,  quoted. 

175,  176. 
Usher,  referred  to,  254. 
"  Utility  of  Religion,"  by  Mill,  referred 

to,  57. 

Vatel,  referred  to,  601. 

Vatke.  referred  to,  296. 

Vaughan,  Cardinal,  quoted  114,  115. 

Vaughan,  Robert,  quoted,  150. 

"  Vie  de  Jesus,''  by  Renan,  quoted,  344. 


Voltaire,  quoted,  19. 
Voss,  referred  to,  254. 

Wace,  Doctor,  referred  to,  120,  576. 
Wallace,  Alfred,  quoted,  384. 
Wallace,  Mr.  William,  quoted,  157. 
Walpole,  Horace,  quoted,  16. 
Ward,  referred  to,  371. 
Ward,    Mrs.    Humphry,    referred    to, 

148,  149. 
"  Warfare  of  Science  with  Theology," 

by  White,  quoted,  256,  309. 
Watson,  Bishop,  quoted,  126. 
Webb,  Bishop,  quoted,  75,  76. 
Webb,  Sidney,  quoted,  225. 
Wegscheider,  quoted,  305. 
Wendt,  referred  to,  365. 
Wesley,  Charles,  referred  to,  601. 
Wesley,  John,  quoted,  26. 
"Wesley,"  by  Riggs,  quoted,  26. 
"  Wesley,"  by  Tyerman,  referred  to, 

13. 
Westcott,  Canon,  quoted,  229. 
Wetstein,  referred  to,  254. 
Whately,  quoted,  99,  311,  312. 
Whitby,  referred  to,  601. 
White,  referred  to,  309. 
"White  Slavery  in  Barbary  States," 

by  Charles  Sumner,  quoted,  457. 
Whitman,  Walt,  quoted,  165,  ISO. 
Whittier,  quoted,  51,  165,  166,  215. 
Wilberforce,  Bishop  Samuel,  quoted, 

117,  255. 
William  the  Conqueror,   quoted,  431, 

432. 
"  Wine  and  Spirit  News,"  quoted,  500. 
Wiseman,  Cardinal,  quoted,  478. 
"Without    God,"     by    Percy     Greg, 

quoted.  367,  368. 
"  Words  of  Belief,"  by  Schiller,  trans- 
lated by  Lord  Lytton.  quoted,  155. 
Wordsworth,  quoted,  157-160. 
Wright,  Doctor,  referred  to,  120,  197. 

Yokoi,  quoted,  502. 

Zeller,  referred  to  296. 
Zola,  referred  to,  391,  537. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Abdul  Hamid,  Sultan,  478. 

Abdul-Medjid,  Sultan,  pledges  of,  470. 

Abelard,  260,  261. 

Abolition  of  slavery,  first  society  for, 
43. 

"Adam"  according  to  Christian  Sci- 
ence, 394,  395. 

Addison  on  English  irreligiou,  14. 

Adrianople,  treaty  of,  470,  471,  472. 

Adventists,  331,  422. 

•'-^neid,"  the,  and  the  greatness  of 
Rome,  143. 

^Eschylus,  prophetic,  147. 

.Esculapius,  healings  at  the  shrine  of, 
391. 

Africa :  the  Bible  in,  495  ;  future  com- 
monwealths of,  500-502;  war  in 
South,  530. 

•'Afterglow  of  the  Christian  Dispen- 
sation," 353. 

Age.  this,  attitude  toward,  50. 

Agno.sticism  :  for  religion,  354;  origin 
of,  366  ;  course  of,  367-370  ;  defini- 
tions of,  369,  370 ;  argument  on,  370- 
373. 

Ahriman,  400. 

Alexander  II.,  action  of,  476. 

Alexandrian  theology,  revival  of,  81, 
82. 

Algiers,  wars  against,  465.  466. 

Alps,  Ruskin's  descriptior.  of  the,  252. 

Ambition  and  the  church,  561,  562. 

Ambrose  and  human  rights,  464. 

America,  United  States  of:  literature 
of,  35,  36  ;  decrease  of  Romanism  in, 
137,  138;  great  preachers  of,  330; 
new  religions  of,  383-402;  sects  in, 
407-410  ;  value  of  denominations  in, 
416,  417;  Cromwell  and  the  Constitu- 
tion of,  412  ;  social  pre-eminence  of. 
4a3;  dealings  of,  with  Algiers,  465. 
466;  its  war  against  Spain,  490,  491 ; 


its  attitude  toward  its  new  posses- 
sions, 491-493 ;  attitude  toward  Ro- 
manism in,  520,  521 ;  church  attend- 
ance in,  524  ;  gain  of  the  church  in, 
575  ;  wealth  of,  580,  581. 

American  Baptist  Publication  Society, 
date  of,  42,  43. 

American  Bible  Society,  output  of,  495. 

American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions, 
date  of,  42. 

American  Education  Society,  date  of, 
42. 

American  Home  Missionary  Society, 
date  of,  42. 

"Americanist"  Controversy  in 
France,  134. 

American  National  Church,  plea  for 
an,  407. 

American  Seaman's  Friend  Society, 
date  of,  43. 

"  American  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Temperance,"  216. 

American  Tract  Society,  date  of,  42. 

Angel  of  Jehovah,  the,  297. 

"Angelus,  The,"  painting  and  extract 
from  Carlyle,  171. 

Anglican  Church:  in  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, 10,  11 ;  possibility  of  its  union 
with  Rome.  435,  4:56. 

Anglicanism  :  the  Oxford  movement 
and,  96,  98, 101 ;  the  Oriel  school  and, 
99,  100;  prelatical,99,  100;  itselaims 
questioned.  108;  Newman's  broalc 
with,  108-111;  defections  from,  lU); 
its  attitude  toward  Dissent,  124-126, 
449,450;  the  Romanizing  of,  114,  115; 
recent  changes  in.  118-123  ;  Russian 
comments  on,  199,  200. 

Anglican  Orders,  115-118. 

Anti-slavery  writers,  180. 

Apostasy:  of  the  church,  196-202;  the 
real,  323. 

633 


634 


GENERAL    INDEX 


Ai)OStles,  authority  of,  413,  444. 

"Apostles  on  Trial,"  (ilO. 

Ai)ostoIic  church,  freedom  of  the,  443- 
445. 

Apostolic  succession  and  skepticism, 
129. 

"  Apostolical  Succession,"  the  keynote 
of  Tract  1,  102. 

Aquila's  rule  of  interpretation,  259. 

"Arabian  Nights,"  its  influence  on 
Newman,  105,  10(). 

Arcliitecture :  note  on,  at  Florence, 
86  ;  and  religion,  595,  59G. 

Arian  controversies,  sects  from  the, 
410. 

Aristocracy  in  the  church,  559. 

Aristotle,  his  effect  on  scholasticism, 
65. 

Armenians :  Greek  championship  of, 
472  ;  massacres  of,  476-478. 

Arnold,  Matthew:  and  the  Oxford 
movement,  130 ;  liberalism  of,  362- 
365. 

Arnold,  Thomas:  his  theology,  81; 
his  view  of  Christianity,  99. 

Arrests  for  drunkenness,  222,  223. 

Art:  and  the  spiritual  life,  131;  relig- 
ious element  in,  150;  mission  of, 
183;  Greek,  535,  536;  and  morality, 
534-541 ;  sensual,  preferred,  564. 

Artists  of  Florence,  names  of  renais- 
sance, 139. 

Artists  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  348,  349. 

Arts,  the,  as  aids  to  worship,  595-598. 

Asceticism,  lack  of,  540,  541. 

Ashe,  work  of,  501. 

Asklepieia,  healings  at  the  shrine  of 
the,  ;391. 

Assumptionist  Fathers,  prosecution 
of,  521. 

Astronomical  instruments,  illustra- 
tion of,  85. 

Athanasius:  and  Neo-Platonism,  64; 
teaching  of,  70. 

Atheism,  social  effects  of,  367,  368. 

Atheist,  the  first,  488. 

Atheists,  list  of  French,  18. 

"Attack  in  open  order,"  446. 

''  Axifklarung,''  375,  376. 

Augustine :  influence  on,  64,  65 ;  his 
"  City  of  God,"  81 ;  formation  of  his 
theology,  316-320. 


Augustinian    Friars    at  work  in  the 

l'hilii)pines,  498. 
"Augustinian  theology  has  fallen," 

316. 
Augustinianism :   eminence   of,   321  ; 

opposition  to,  320,  324,  327. 
Aurora,  the,  an  illustration,  563. 
Australia,  decline  of  population  in, 

537,  538. 
Austria  :  reform  measures  in,  47  ;  and 

the  Protestants  of  Germany,  479-481  ; 

war  of  Prussia  and,  480,  481 ;  troops 

of,   in  Italy,  486;    defections    from 

Romanism  in,  519. 
Author,  impartiality  of  the,  7. 
Authors:    French  anti-Christian,  33; 

evangelical,  34 ;  names  of  modern 

emancipating,  178  ;  anti-slavery, 180; 

German,   of  biographies  of  Christ, 

343. 
Authority  and  sects,  409-411. 

Bainbridge,  Commodore,  against  Al- 
giers, 465. 

Balaam,  as  a  prophet,  149. 

Bampton  Lectures,  by  Doctor  Hamp- 
den, 311. 

Baptismal  regeneration,  advocated, 
113. 

Baptists :  early  resolution  of,  on  slav- 
ery, 43 ;  against  church  subsidies, 
561. 

Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  date 
of,  42. 

Baptist  Missionary  Society,  date  of,  41. 

Barbary  States,  slavery  in  the,  465, 
466. 

Barnardo,  Doctor,  charity  of,  234. 

Bastille,  apostrophe  on  the  fall  of  the, 
38,  39. 

Bayle's  denunciation  of  Huguenots, 
19. 

Bazaars  and  suppers  in  the  church, 
615,  616. 

Beaconsfield,  Lord,  his  "  two  nations," 
231. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  as  a  reform 
leader,  216. 

Belgium,  reaction  from  Romanism  in, 
132. 

"  Benevolent  assimilation,"  500. 

Benga  Bible,  495. 


GENERAL    INDEX 


635 


Benke,  work  of,  583. 

Bentham,  his  utilitarianism,  98. 

Bequest  of  a  philanthropist,  550. 

Berlin,  Treaty  of,  476. 

Bethlehem,  Church  of  Nativity  at, 
473,  474. 

Bible,  the  :  a  supreme  revelation,  77  ; 
example  of  a  permanent  method, 
77 ;  Fronde's  attitude  toward,  105  ; 
Jerome's  collection  of  canon  of, 
145 ;  narratives  of,  154  :  Ruskin  on, 
173,  174  ;  Heine's  praise  of,  251 ;  com- 
pared with  the  Alps,  252  ;  Coleridge 
on,  252,  253,  265,  266 ;  modern  criti- 
cism of,  2.53-259 ;  variations  in  text 
of,  262 ;  errors  in,  268,  269 ;  trust- 
worthiness of,  271-273  ;  present  atti- 
tude toward,  277-280 ;  "  the  real  mo- 
rality of,"  283;  test  of  apostolicity 
for,  297 ;  loss  of  confidence  in,  307  ; 
Johann  Von  Miiller  on,  402,  403 ; 
entering  Rome,  490 ;  circulation  of, 
494-496;  prophecy  in,  572;  its  value 
in  spiritual  culture,  600. 

"  Bible  of  Humanity,"'  298. 

Bible  Society  in  France,  430. 

Biblical  criticism.     (See  Criticism.) 

Biblical  critics,  254,  2.55. 

"  Bibliotheca  Divina,''  of  Jerome,  145. 

Biographers  of  Christ,  names  of,  343, 
345. 

Bishops  and  Shaftesbury's  reforms, 
213. 

Bismarck,  his  testimony  to  Count  Ito, 
502. 

Bohler,  Peter,  and  Wesley,  20. 

Bolingbroke,  position  of,  19. 

Bossuet,  his  conception  of  religion,  53. 

Boston  :  liquor  business  in,  223,  224  ; 
the  center  of  Unitarian  defection, 
326 ;  decay  of  Unitarianism  in.  519. 

"Boxers,"  506. 

Bozzaris,  Marco,  471. 

Bradford,  Governor,  story  of,  448,  449. 

Bright,  John,  on  the  liquor  traffic,  222. 

British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
date  of,  42  ;  output  of,  495. 

"Broad  Church":  influence  of,  121, 
122  ;  movement  in  England,  329. 

British  and  Foreign  School  Society, 
date  of,  42. 

Brook  Farm,  607. 


Brooke,  Henry,  evangelical,  34. 

Brougham,  Lord,  his  society,  98. 

Browning :  and  the  Oxford  move- 
ment, 130;  as  prophet,  152,  160-161; 
his  saying  as  to  the  meaning  of  his 
poetry,  394. 

Brunetiere,  his  conception  of  religion, 
53. 

Buddha,  "glory  of,"  381. 

Buddhism:  useless,  507;  numerical 
.standing  of,  574. 

Bulgaria,  massacres  in,  475. 

Bunsen's  social  theory,  205. 

Burns,  piety  of,  34. 

Butler,  Bishop,  his  parents  Dissenters, 
126. 

Byron :  his  idea  of  freedom,  98 ;  in- 
fluence of  his  poetry  on  Pusey,  112 ; 
ni  the  Greek  war,  471. 

Cfcsar,  worship  of,  428,  429. 

Calvin,  i)laying  bowls  on  Sunday,  5.58. 

Calvinism:  of  Carlyle,  170;  opposi- 
tion to,  324,  327  ;  present  allegiance 
to,  332. 

Camille,  5:53. 

Campbell,  Alexander,  a  religious 
leader,  420. 

Campbell,  Macleod,  35. 

"  Campbellitcs,"  419-421. 

Canada,  gain  of  Protestantism  in,  1,37. 

Candles  :  discussion  on,  189  ;  "  and  in- 
cense," 124. 

Canute,  as  an  illustration,  532. 

Capellan,  Admiral  Van,  against  Al- 
giers, 465. 

Capital :  growth  of,  229,  230 ;  exploit- 
ing American  dependencies,  492. 

Capital  punishment,  brutalities  of,  1.5. 

Carbonari  societies,  485. 

Carey,  William,  importanceof  his  sail- 
ing, 494. 

Carlstadt,  as  a  critic,  254. 

Carlyle,  Thomas :  theology  of,  170 ; 
on  dignity  of  humanity,  170-172. 

Carnegie's  libraries,  239. 

Catacombs,  power  of  the  church  in 
the,  616. 

Cathedrals  as  affecting  worship,  595. 

"  Catholic"  :  use  of  the  term  in  An- 
glicanism, 118-120;  fascination  of 
the  word,  439,  440. 


636 


GENERAL    INDEX 


"  Catholic  Apostolic  "  church,  4'22. 

Catholic  church,  the  coming,  620. 

Catliolicism  (sec  also  Romanism) : 
voluntary  support  of,  48;  and  ro- 
manticism, 93 ;  return  to,  in  Ger- 
many, 93,  94 ;  aesthetic  charms  of 
medieval,  93,  94 ;  revival  of,  in  Eng- 
land, 9G,  97, 102, 103  ;  and  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles,  102 ;  literature  op- 
posed to,  136 ;  possible  good  in  revi- 
val of,  139. 

"  Catholicizing  "  Protestant  churches, 
439-443. 

Cavour:  mentioned,  484,  488;  "the 
statesman,"  487. 

Censoriousness,  decline  of,  448. 

Centuries,  characteristics  of  the,  517, 
518. 

Century,  end  of  the,  3. 

Chalmers  and  the  Free  Kirk,  419. 

Chang  Chih  Tung  on  opium,  529. 

Charities:  multitude  of  modern,  233, 
234  ;  amounts  expended  on,  234 ; 
failure  of,  234,  236,  237  ;  badly  organ- 
ized, 238  ;  administration  of,  239,  240. 

Charity:  and  the  church,  549;  degra- 
dation by,  550  ;  of  great  millionaires, 
580-581. 

Charles  V. :  against  Algiers,  465  ;  and 
African  slavery,  466. 

Chartist  movement  ascribed  to  New- 
man, 208. 

Chaumette,  on  the  worship  of  reason, 
45. 

Childhood  :  present  interest  in,  210, 
211 ;  spiritual  training  of,  603-605. 

Child  labor  in  England,  212,  213. 

Child,  saving  the,  602,  603. 

China:  and  Japan,  503,  504;  missions 
in,  505,  506;  division  of,  506;  Boxer 
outbreak  in,  506 ;  opium  war  against, 
529. 

Christ:  a  representative  man,  61,  62; 
at  a  dinner  party,  174  ;  and  the  Jew- 
ish State,  194  ;  his  two-fold  purpose, 
194 ;  re-discovery  of  the  historic, 
295,  296 ;  a  personal  revelation,  296- 
300 ;  the  chief  features  in  theology, 
339-346;  the  historic,  341,  342;  mini- 
mizing the  words  of,  365 ;  progress 
by  the  thoughts  of,  566;  "is  played 
out,"'  614. 


Christ  Church,  Pusey  at,  113. 

"  Christian  Catholic  Church,  the,"  620. 

Christian  character,  production  of, 
539,  540. 

"Christian"  denomination,  420,  421. 

"Christian  Science":  cures  of,  390- 
393  ;  teachings  of,  394-399. 

Christianity  :  renounced  in  the  French 
Convention,  45;  a  "  book  religion," 
71 ;  spiritual,  74-76  ;  the  ideal  in,  79, 
80 ;  practical,  80,  81 ;  leavening  the 
world's  life,  81,  82;  moribund,  82- 
84,  353,  354,  511;  influence  of,  81; 
change  in,  84,  85;  incomplete,  86, 
87;  Emerson  on,  167,  168;  Lowell 
on,  185 ;  a  universal  religion,  206 ; 
and  charities,  240;  a  social  revolu- 
tion, 324 ;  substitutes  for,  356,  357 ; 
and  the  Greek  ideal,  364  ;  a  gradual 
decline  impossible  to,  402;  central 
to  the  race's  development,  458,  459 ; 
dignity  of,  in  persecutions,  478;  "  a 
hidden  leaven,"  483;  rejection  of, 
in  Japan,  504  ;  a  controlling  force  in 
history,  508 ;  que.stion  of  failure  of, 
511,  515-517,  519 ;  and  secularism, 
557,  566,  567 ;  bright  prospects  of, 
573 ;  numerical  standing  of,  574 ; 
growth  of,  574,  575 ;  wealth  of,  580, 
581 ;  harmonizing  work  of,  582-584  ; 
the  supreme  blessing,  618,  619. 

Church,  the:  voluntary  support  for, 
48-50 ;  universal,  56 ;  human  ele- 
ment in  early,  63,  64;  Judaism's  ef- 
fect on,  63  ;  influence  of  Greece  and 
Rome  on,  64,  66 ;  influence  of  phi- 
losophy on,  64-66;  views  on  organ- 
ization of,  98-100 ;  Catholic  concep- 
tion of,  118, 119;  as  fulfilling  proph- 
ecy, 184,  185;  its  social  mission.  ISO, 
193,  195;  and  Roman  opposition, 
195;  sociological  teaching  in,  206, 
207 ;  effects  of  anti-slavery  agita- 
tion on,  215;  and  slavery  and  in- 
temperance, 214-217  ;  her  first  duty, 
221 ;  opposing  the  liquor  traffic,  222, 
224  ;  social  experiments  in,  218  ;  de- 
fects of,  218-221,  547;  co-operation's 
claims  upon,  233;  must  reorganize 
charities,  233,  236,  21^9 ;  love  the  chief 
work  of,  241-243 ;  reluctance  to 
change  in,  310;  and  healings,  392, 


GENERAL    INDEX 


637 


393  ;  time  ripe  for  union  in,  422-425  ; 
interaction  between  nations  and, 
460 ;  and  politics,  402-493 ;  question 
of  failure  of,  516,  517  ;  present  mem- 
bership of,  522,  524,  525  ;  in  cities, 
524-526;  and  war,  528,  529;  and  so- 
ciety, 532-539,  605-609 ;  as  training  her 
members,  539-548,  598-605  ;  discipline 
in,  543-546;  criticisms  of,  548,  552 
commercialism  in,  559-561 ;  and  sec 
ularism,  564-566  ;  numerical  gain  of, 
575;  societies  doing  the  worli  of, 
585-587;  limitations  of  methods  of, 
586,  587 ;  masculine  element  in,  586, 
588 ;  an  exalted  State,  588  ;  must  spe 
cialize,  589-592;  missionary  nature 
of,  608-610;  aristocracy  in,  608,  609 
dignity  of,  478,  613  ;  financial  confu- 
sion in,  618. 

"  Church  and  State  "  :  Arnold's  theory 
of,  205  ;  other  theories  of,  205  ;  ex- 
periments with,  425-433,  590. 

Church  attendance,  83,  84,  522-526, 
557-559,  593,  594,  598. 

Church  buildings :  transfer  of,  from 
Unitarians  to  Trinitarians,  519 ;  mod- 
ern, 593,  595,  596  ;  furnishings  of,  616. 

Church  Congress  in  London,  criticism 
on  a,  189. 

Churches  :  Protestant,  too  aristocratic, 
202;  mischievous,  009. 

Church  fairs,  615,  616. 

"Church  History,"  Milner's,  read  by 
Newman,  106. 

Church  Missionary  Society,  date  of, 
42. 

Cities:  charities  of  great,  234;  univer- 
sal suffrage  and  the  government  of, 
513,514;  irreligion  in  great,  524-526. 

Civilization :  should  produce  man- 
hood, 176;  and  the  Bible,  252,  253: 
will  decay  without  Christianity,  619, 
620. 

Civil  War,  the,  467. 

"Civism,"  607. 

Clarkson,  Thomas :  his  fight  against 
slavery,  214  ;  work  of,  583. 

Classicism,  course  of,  138,  139. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  70. 

Clericalism,  decline  of,  575,  576. 

Clerics,  Roman  Catholic,  converts  to 
Protestantism,  133. 


Clough,  Arthur,  and  the  Oxford  move- 
ment, 130. 

Cochrane,  in  the  Greek  War,  471. 

Coleridge:  revived  Alexandrian  phi- 
losophy, 34  ;  transcendentalism  of, 
98;  on  the  Bible,  252;  influence  of, 
329. 

Cologne,  growth  of  Protestantism  in, 
136. 

Colonization  Society,  date  of,  13. 

Combe,  George,  philosopliy  of,  35. 

Comity  of  missions,  413. 

Commercialism :  and  American  de- 
pendencies, 492,  493  ;  in  the  church, 
615-618. 

Commune  Lichtenwald,  defections 
from  Romanism  in,  133. 

Communion,  Newman  and  Tennyson 
on  the,  440. 

Comte,  Auguste :  the  "Great  Being" 
of,  40 ;  account  of,  373-375 ;  his  sys- 
tem, 376-380. 

Conceit,  intellectual,  553. 

"Concordat  of  1855,"  482. 

Confession,  hearing,  introduced  into 
the  Anglican  Church,  113,  114. 

Confession  of  Augsburg,  558. 

Confessions  of  faith  as  permanent,  70. 

"Confraternity  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment," 116,  117. 

Confucianism,  numerical  standing  of, 
574. 

Congregationalism,  growth  of,  576, 
577,  579. 

Congregationalists,  against  church 
subsidies,  561. 

Conscience :  the  only  need  of  the 
church,  185  ;  and  belief  in  God,  373  ; 
liberty  of,  442.  443. 

Consciousness  the  "ultimate  certain- 
ty," 369. 

Consecrated  ground,  450. 

Consecration,  effects  of,  601. 

"  Consistoires,"  tendency  of,  430. 

Constantinople:  capture  of,  468:  Rns- 
sian  designs  on,  472,  473,  474  ;  patri- 
arch of,  474;  massacres  in,  471,  474. 

Conventionalism  in  church  work,  610- 
612. 

Cook,  Charles,  preaching  of,  4:10. 

Cooper,  Anthony  Ashley,  liis  work, 
211-213. 


638 


GENERAL    INt>EX 


Co-operation  :  need  of,  2'28  ;  growth  of, 
232;  in  production,  232,  233;  its 
claims  on  the  church,  233;  among 
denominations,  445-447. 

Correggio's  success,  300. 

Covenanters,  ritualism  in  church  of 
the,  1'23. 

Cowper :  evangelical,  34  ;  compared 
with  Wordsworth,  157. 

Cranmer  on  Sunday  observance,  558. 

Creeds:  dangers  of,  275  ;  absolute,  332, 
333  ;  evidence  of  death  in,  30G  ;  some 
ancient,  43'J ;  likeness  of,  453 ;  true 
test  of,  453. 

"  Crescent  and  the  Cross,"  conflict  be- 
tween, 468-478. 

Crimean  War:  concessions  after,  470; 
religious  origin  of,  472,  474,  475. 

Crimes  of  ancient  nations,  284-286. 

Critics,  list  of  Bible,  254,  255 

Criticism,  biblical :  post  reformation, 
2.54 ;  contemporary,  2-55 ;  protests 
against,  255,  256 ;  need  of,  257,  258 ; 
Jewish,  259,  260 ;  reaction  in  higher, 
277,  278 ;  present  attitude  of,  283 ; 
ultimate  benefit  of,  301,  302;  St. 
George  Mivart  on  higher,  578. 

Croly,  Rev.  Dr.,  characterized  the 
Reformation,  4. 

Cromwell,  Dollingeron,  441,  442. 

Crusades,  enthusiasm  of  the,  612. 

Cuba:  liberation  of,  490;  devastation 
of,  530. 

Culture :  and  Unitarianism,  326,  ^27  ; 
and  religion,  552,  553 ;  spiritual,  598- 
605 ;  spiritual,  of  children,  603-605. 

Cumberland  Presbyterians,  reason  for 
formation  of,  421. 

Dante :  Plato's  effect  on,  65 ;  as  pro- 
phetic, 147. 

Dardanelles,  passing  the.  475. 

Darwin :  appearance  of  his  book  on 
evolution,  253  ;  his  theories  obsolete, 
310. 

Dead,  the,  the  church  on  the  activity 
of,  386. 

Debtors :  starvation  of,  16 ;  Doctor 
.Johnson  on.  16. 

Decatur  again.st  Algiers,  465. 

"  DMamtion  des  droits  de  Vhomme." 
430. 


Declaration  of  Independence :  ideas 
confirmed  by,  180;  its  influence  in 
theology,  320,  321  ;  disfranchising 
interpretation  of,  492. 

Deists,  list  of  popular,  14. 

Deity  :  five  names  of,  292 ;  manner  of 
describing,  a  century  ago,  313  ;  .sov- 
ereignty and  fatherhood  of,  319;  the 
church  the  revealer  of,  591 ;  adora- 
tion of,  592-594 ;  study  of,  needed, 
594,  595. 

Democracy  in  tlieology,  320. 

Denominations :  catholicity  of,  56 ; 
number  of,  in  America,  407,  408; 
good  work  of,  416,  417. 

Deschamps,  Abbe,  position  of,  18. 

Desprey,  Bishop  of  Toulouse,  cele- 
brates St.  Bartholomew  massacre, 
480. 

Development  in  doctrine,  305. 

Diebitsch,  471. 

"Disciples,"  420,421. 

"Discipline,"  the,  Pusey  inquires 
about,  114. 

Discontent  with  the  progress  of  the 
century,  511-513. 

Discrimination,  duty  of,  in  the  Bible, 
274. 

Disestablishment :  effect  of,  40.  41 : 
progress  of,  in  America,  44  ;  progress 
of,  in  France,  44-47  ;  progress  of,  in 
other  nations,  44,  45 ;  resistance  to, 
47,  48;  pos.sibility  of  English,  116. 

Disorderly  religious  teachers,  543-546. 

Dissent,  English,  and  Anglicanism, 
98. 

Dissenters:  hostility  toward,  124-126; 
admission  of,  to  Oxford,  311  ;  nu- 
merical standing  of,  576. 

"Dissidence  of  Dissent,"  409,  453. 

"  Divine  Healers,"  560. 

Divine  indwelling  the  fundamental 
experience,  337,  338. 

Division  of  labor,  rule  of,  589. 

Divorce :  standing  of,  281 ;  under 
Rome,  291. 

Doctrinal  preaching,  protest  against. 
148. 

Doctrine  :  changes  in,  305,  306  :  idea  of 
its  needlessness.  307  ;  effect  of.  on 
union,  4.51.  452. 

Dogma  essential  in  the  church.  ;10S. 


GENERAL    INDEX 


639 


Dollinger,  411. 

Doubt :  and  liberalism,  361,  302 ;  aud 

agnosticism,  370. 
Drama:  as  reflecting  the  times,  534, 

538 ;  defense  of,  540,  541 ;  sensuous, 

preferred,  561. 
Dreyfus  case  and  Romanism,  134,  531. 
Dublin,  saloons  in,  223. 
Duchess  of  Buckingham,  criticism  of 
i     Wesleyanism  by,  28. 
Dukhobortsi,  the,  530. 
Dumas,   Alexander,   romanticism  of, 

96. 
Duomo    of    Florence,    architectural 

question  of,  86. 

"  Earth-spirit,"  559. 

Ecclesiasticism,  opposed  to  the  Ser- 
mon on  the  Mount,  192. 

Economic  system,  failure  of  modern, 
236. 

Economy,  Ruskin  on  need  of,  176, 177. 

Ecumenical  Council  of  1869-1870,  434. 

Eddy,  Mrs.  Mary  Baker,  teachings  of, 
390,  392,  394-398. 

"  Edinburgh  Review,"  first  number  of, 
35. 

"Edit  de  Tolerance,''  429. 

Education  :  in  Prussia,  4S2  ;  not  per- 
fected, 514;  beginnings  of  popular. 
583  ;  not  the  work  of  the  church. 
589.  590,  599  ;  spiritual,  598, 

Edward  III.,  his  statute  of  Prpemunire, 
432. 

Edwards.  .Jonathan,  and  the  Great 
Awakening,  29,  30. 

Egyptian  book  of  the  dead,  .385 

Egyptian,  the,  a  hermit,  459. 

Eighteenth  Century  :  character  of,  8- 
50  :  artificiality  of,  92. 

Elgin,  Earl  of,  and  Japan,  503. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  transcendent- 
alism of,  166.  167. 

Emmanuel,  Victor,  his  entry  into 
Rome,  484,  490. 

Emotion  in  religion,  362.  363. 

Eiidicott,  Governor,  story  of,  448,  449 

England  :  godle.'^.sness  of.  12-14  :  apos- 
tasy of,  13  ;  corruption  of.  14-17  ;  re- 
vival of  eighteenth  century  in, 27- 
29:  romantic  movements  in,  96-98; 
Catholicism  arrested  in,  137  ;  proph- 


etism  in  literature  of,  156-165  ;  money 
spent  in  charity  in,  234;  "Broad 
Church"  of,  329;  sects  in,  408,  409, 
432,  433  ;  church  federation  in,  4.50, 
451 ;  and  slavery,  466,  467 ;  in  the 
Crimean  War,  474,  475. 

England,   Church  of    (see  Anglican- 
ism) :  numerical  standing  of,  576; 
foundation  of,  432. 

"  English  Church  Union,"  position  of, 
115,116. 

Enthusiasm  and  enthusiasts,  612,  613. 

Erasmus  as  a  critic,  254. 

Eromanga,  497. 

Erskine,  Thomas,  35. 

Eschatology,  present  standing  of,  331. 

Essential  truths  in  the  Bible,  277. 
'Eternal  Power,  not  ourselves,'  362- 
364. 

Eternal  punishment,  314,  315,  330. 

Ethical  Culture,  consideration  for,  422. 

Ethics:  Bible,  283;  in  religion,  362- 
364;  and  the  "categorical  impera- 
tive," 373  ;  of  Spiritism,  388,  389  ;  the 
church  to  teach,  590,  591. 

Ethnic  faiths  "have  no  to-morrow," 
507. 

Etienne,  Rabaut-S.,  429. 

Eucharist:  importance  of  the,  121; 
different  conceptions  of,  440. 

Euripides  prophetic,  147. 

Evangelical  Alliance :  and  church 
union,  424  ;  Cromwell's  preparation 
for,  442. 

Evangelical  churches,  di.scrimination 
against.  519. 

Evangelical  principles,  current  to- 
ward, in  Europe.  481.  482. 

Evangelical  writers  of  beginning  of 
nineteenth  century.  34. 

Evangelist,  the,  his  prophetic  charac 
ter,  146. 

Evolution:  appearance  of.  253  :  in  the 
Scriptures,  278-284. 

Ewald's  five  names  of  God.  292. 

Excesses  in  religion,  544,  546. 

Executions,  tickets  to,  15 

Factory  legislation  of  18.33.  212. 
Faddists  in  religion.  543.  545.  .560. 
"Failure":  assertions  of,  of  Christi- 
anitv  and  free  institutions,  511-513  ; 


640 


GENERAL    INDEX 


incompleteness  mistaken  for,  514. 
515. 

Falkland,  Lord,  his  saying  as  to  the 
bishops,  115. 

Family,  injuries  to  the,  237,  238,  537, 
538. 

Fashion,  Ruskin  on,  174. 

"  Fatherhood  of  God  and  brotherhood 
of  man,"  327. 

Feeling  recognized  in  Methodism,  25. 

Feudalism  in  English  society,  lyy, 
200. 

Franchise,  present  complaints  about, 
513,  514. 

Francis  of  Assisi,  012. 

Franciscan  monks  in  the  Philippines, 
498. 

Franco-rrussiau  War,  religious  side 
of,  481,  482. 

Frankenstein,  pessimism  as  a,  382. 

Frankfurt,  diet  of  princes  at,  479. 

Franklin's  morality,  19. 

"Fraternal  State'*  and  the  church, 
189. 

Fraternity  :  lack  of,  220 ;  need  of,  240- 
242;  growth  of,  450;  and  federation, 
450,  451. 

"Fiery  Cross,"  the,  613. 

Finances,  confusion  of  church,  G18. 

Finland,  crushing  of,  530. 

Fleury,  oppression  of,  IS. 

Forecast  for  the  twentieth  century, 
571,  620,  621. 

"  Fox  girls,"  rappings  of,  383. 

France:  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
18 ;  anti-Christian  writers  in,  33 ; 
political  upheavals  in,  37;  Christi- 
anity renounced  by,  44-46  ;  Roman- 
ticism in,  95,  96;  romantic  writers 
of,  96  :  antagonism  to  Romanism  in, 
132-135 ;  charities  in,  235.  236,  237,  238  ; 
religious  investigation  in,  336-339 ; 
sects  in,  429-431;  State  Church  in. 
429-431 ;  in  tlie  Crimean  War,  474. 
475  :  decay  of  Romanism  in,  519,  520 : 
priests  and  ''relipievx"  in,  520,  521  ; 
decline  of  population  in,  537. 

Frederick  TV.,  of  Denmark,  author- 
izes a  religious  society,  41. 

Frederick  William  III.,  of  Prussia,  and 
the  church,  426. 

"  I'^ree  Church  in  a  free  State,"  487. 


"  Free  Churches  of  France,"  430,  431. 

Freedom:  American  movements  for, 
180,  181  ;  European  writers  for,  182  ; 
attacked,  513,  514  ;  wealth  a  menace 
to,  513. 

Free  Kirk  of  Scotland,  origin  of,  419. 
•Free  Kirk  minister's  prayer.  409. 

Freeman,  James,  ordination  of,  418. 

Freiligrath  and  Germany,  182. 

Fremantle,  Dean,  his  theory  of  gov- 
ernment, 81,  82. 

French  Revolution  :  and  Catholicism, 
44-47;  its  influence  on  \\ords\vortli, 
160. 

French,  the,  in  Tahiti  and  Madaga.s- 
car,  414. 

Friends,  the :  and  abolition,  43 ; 
against  church  subsidies,  561. 

Fronde,  Ricliard  Hurrell,  in  the  Ox- 
ford movement,  103-105. 

Froude  on  Carlyle.  170. 

Fuller,  Andrew,  330. 

Gambetta,  motto  of,  521. 

Garibaldi,  484,  487,  489. 

Gasparin,  Count  de,  a  religious  leader, 
430. 

Gautier,  Theophile,  romanticism  of. 
96. 

General  Baptist  Missionary  Conven- 
tion, date  of,  42. 

Genevan  Cross  Society,  527. 

Genius  and  morals,  150. 

Geocentric  tendency.  554.  560. 

Geology  and  the  Mosaic  accounts, 
2.53. 

George.  Henry,  on  the  work  of  the 
church,  195. 

Georgia  :  the  Wesleys'  trip  to,  26  :  pro- 
visions of  first  constitution  of.  216. 

"Georgics"  reflecting  Roman  agri- 
culture, 143. 

German  authors  of  biographies  of 
Christ.  343. 

'  German  Catholic  Church."  411. 

German  Empire,  revival  of.  479-481. 

Germanos.  archbishop  of  Patras,  a  po- 
litical leader,  469. 

Germans,  their  type  of  religion,  459. 
460. 

Germany:  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
17,   18;    theologians  in,   93,  94.  112, 


GENERAL    INDEX 


641 


328,  329:  attacks  on  theology  of, 
113  ;  philosophers  of,  153  ;  principles 
of  the  Peasants'  War  in,  199 ;  chari- 
ties of,  235  ;  sought  by  French  theo- 
logians, 336,  337  ;  State  church,  426- 
428 ;  sects  in,  427 ;  conflict  against 
Protestantism  in,  478-482. 

Giulio  Romano,  opposed  to  medieval- 
ism, 91. 

"Gifts  of  healing,"  393. 

Gladiatorial  combats,  Telemachus 
and,  464. 

Glasgow,  religious  conditions  in,  524, 
525. 

God  (see  Deity) :  progressive  revela- 
tion of  nature  of,  292-295;  "an  in- 
finite Caesar,"  318;  Christ's  thoughts 
of,  566. 

Goethe  :  classicism  of,  93  ;  his  ideal  of 
culture,  98 ;  attitude  of  statue  of, 
151 ;  on  spiritual  enthusiasm,  156. 

Golden  Rule,  the,  and  business,  606, 
607. 

"Gospel  of  Nature,"  32. 

Gothic  architecture,  595,  597. 

Government  no  reliance  to  the  church, 
478. 

Grant.  General,  magnanimity  of,  .527. 

Gray,  Lord,  threat  of,  to  the  bishops. 
97. 

"Great  Artificer,"  the,  608. 

"Great  Awakening"  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  29,  30,  517,  518. 

"  Great  Being  "  of  Comte,  40. 

Great  Britain  (see  also  England) : 
State  Church  in,  431-433;  and  Tur- 
key, 471,  472,  474,  475,  477,  478 ;  opium 
war  of,  with  China,  529  ;  wealth  of, 
580. 

"Great  Commission,"  608. 

Greece :  literature  and  times  of  an- 
cient, 143  :  sophists  of,  370 :  inde- 
pendence of.  468.  469.  471,  472;  its 
war  with  Turkey,  472,  477 ;  art  of 
ancient,  sensual.  5:35,  536. 

Greek  and  Latin  schism,  410,  411. 

Greek  Church  :  corruption  of,  199-201 : 
repelled  by  the  papacy,  4.35 ;  Rus- 
sian esteem  of  the,  472-474  ;  and  re- 
ligious persecution,  5;i0. 

Greeks :  supreme  ideal  of,  364 ;  acute- 
ness  of,  459. 


Gregory  XVI.,  vicious  administration 
of,  485. 

Haldanes,  influence  of  the,  419,  420, 
430. 

Halle,  Pietism  at  University  of.  27. 

Hallucinations,  a  religion  of,  :598. 

Hampden,  Dr. :  appointed  as  professor 
at  Oxford,  100;  persecution  of,  311, 
312. 

Handshaking,  551,  552. 

Hastings  in  the  Greek  war,  471. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  missions  in,  497-499. 

Healings  without  medicine,  ancient 
and  modern,  390-399. 

Heathenism :  corruption  of  ancient, 
284-286  ;  converts  from,  494. 

Hegel,  as  to  religion,  53. 

Hegelian  theory  of  history,  458. 

Heine  in  praise  of  the  Bible,  251. 

Herder's  views  on  the  human  ele- 
ment. 59,  60. 

Hierarchy,  modeled  on  Roman  gov- 
ernment, 66. 

Higher  Criticism.     (See  Criticism.) 

High  license,  moral  bearing  of,  287. 

Hinduism,  numerical  standing  of,  574. 

History  :  a  warning,  457  ;  a  plan  in, 
458 :  ideas  in  recent,  507. 

Hobbes,  position  of,  19. 

Hohenstaufen  Empire,  attractions  of, 
to  the  romanticists,  94. 

Holiness  teachers,  denunciation  of, 
543-545. 

Holland  House,  mentioned.  98. 

Holy  Spirit,  the :  and  revelation.  70. 
71 :  and  interpretation  of  the  Bible. 
72  ;  in  the  church.  75,  76,  79  ;  writings 
on,  78. 

'  Holy"  vessels.  605. 

Hope-Scott  of  Abbotsford,  letter  to. 
114. 

Housing  of  the  poor.  224-227. 

Howitt.  William,  on  Spiritualism,  388. 

Hugo.  Victor,  romanticism  of.  96. 

Huguenots,  benefits  from,  416. 

Human  element  in  religion :  preju- 
dice against,  58,  59,  67,  68:  analogy 
for,  68. 

Humaneness  :  growth  of,  527  ;  of  the 
present  time,  582. 

Humanism  :  tendency  toward,  322, 327, 


2Q 


642 


GENERAL    INDEX 


328 ;  of  the  sixteenth  century,  322, 
323  ;  and  the  gospel,  327. 

Humanitarianism :  rise  of  modern, 
208  ;  in  Sunday-school  work,  209,  210. 

"  Humanities,"  sham,  5G4. 

Humanity,  Ambrose's  assertion  of 
rights  of,  464. 

Hume,  empiricism  of,  98. 

Plussites  and  the  Moravians,  27. 

Hymn-writers  of  beginning  of  nine- 
teenth century,  34. 

Ibsen,  Tolstoy's  opinion  of,  602. 

Idealism,  philosophical :  origin  of,  32  : 
in  theology,  334-339:  of  Arnold,  362. 

Idealism,  scientists  on,  368. 

Ideas,  in  recent  history,  507. 

Ignatius,  mention  of,  451. 

Imagination,  need  of,  93. 

Immortality,  not  proved  by  Spiritual- 
ism, 387,  388. 

"Imperative,  categorical,"  373. 

Imperialism  :  opposed  to  the  church's 
social  ideals,  195 ;  in  theology,  318- 
321 ;  questions  of  America's,  491-493. 

Imperfection,  in  all  things  good,  515. 

Imprecatory  Psalms,  274. 

Independence,  spiritual,  441-443. 

Independents  and  Cromwell.  442. 

India  :  the  apostle  in,  505  ;  missions  in. 
505. 

Indians,  American,  Bibles  for,  495,  496. 

Individualism:  Emerson  on.  179;  ob- 
solescent, 447. 

Indulgences  and  church  union.  423. 

Infallibility  :  of  church  and  book,  261  ; 
of  the  Bible.  274  :  of  the  pope,  437. 
438. 

Ingersoll,  Colonel,  replies  to.  279,  288 
290. 

Insane,  past  treatment  of  the,  212. 

Inspiration  :  human  element  in,  59,60. 
61 ;  Whately's  denial  of  verbal.  99 : 
alternatives  regarding.  268;  the 
word,  in  the  Bible.  268  :  method  of. 
not  definable,  269 :  tested  by  trust- 
wortliiness,  271-273  ;  theories  of,  259- 
271  :  "  in  the  essential  nature,"  259. 

Intellcctualism,  613. 

Intemperance  (see  Liquor  Traffic)  : 
in  eighteenth  century,  16;  at  fu- 
nerals, 20;    American    movements 


against,  216,  217 ;  in  the  Philippine 
army,  500. 

Intolerance  among  "Liberals,"  360, 
361. 

Irreverence  in  church  services,  594. 

Irving,  Edward,  35. 

Irvingites,  422. 

Islam,  official  prayer  of,  477. 

Italy  :  vote  on  architectural  question 
in,  86 ;  reaction  from  Romanism 
in,  1:32 ;  acquisition  of  Venetia  by, 
481 ;  influence  of  Romanism  in,  482- 
487 ;  Christianity's  influence  on 
three  leaders  of,  487,  488. 

Ito.  Count,  and  Christianity,  502. 

Jacobi,  as  to  religion,  53. 

Japan:  religious  freedom  in,  502; 
Christianity  and  civilization  in,  503, 
504  ;  its  rejection  of  Christianity,  504. 

Jefferson,  deism  of,  19. 

Jerome  and  the  Bible,  145. 

Jesuit  of  Paderhorn,  481. 

Jesuits,  expulsion  of,  from  Germany, 
482. 

Jewish  State  :  dangers  about  the,  194 ; 
progress  in  the  history  of,  282,  283  ; 
superiority  of  the,  284-294. 

Jews,  persecution  of,  530,  587. 

"  Johannean  Church,"  445. 

Joseph  II.,  of  Austria,  restrictions  on 
Catholic  Church  by,  47. 

Josika  and  Hungary,  182. 

Joubert,  General,  the  queen's  tele- 
gram on  the  death  of,  527. 

Judaism  ;  its  influence  on  the  church. 
63,  64  ;  prophets  of,  168.  169. 

Juvenal,  and  the  corruption  of  Rome, 
143. 

Kamehameha  I.,  mysterious  order  of, 
498. 

Kanaris,  471. 

Kant,  as  to  religion.  53. 

Kcblc  :  famous  assize  sermon  of,  101  : 
author  of  Tractarianism,  103;  his 
"  Christian  Year,"  103,  104. 

Kensit's  agitation.  433. 

"Kcrugma,"  the,  355. 

Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  Babu,  wel- 
comed to  London.  454. 

Kingsley  a  Broad-churchman,  122. 


GENERAL    INDEX 


643 


"  Kingdom  of  Heaven  "  :  study  of,  204, 
205,  206 ;  the  State  as,  205 ;  inaugura- 
tion of,  423. 

Koniggriitz,  results  of  battle  of,  481. 

Korea,  Russia  in,  504. 

Labor:  Carlyle's  sympathy  with,  171, 
172  ;  literature  advocating  rights  of, 
181,  182;  Earl  of  Shaftesbury's  ef- 
forts for,  211-213;  socializing,  228; 
discontent  of,  228-230;  the  church 
to  spiritualize,  608. 

La  Bisputa,  Raphael's  painting  of, 
346. 

Lady  Huntington,  letter  to,  28. 

Lafayette  and  Protestantism,  429. 

Lambeth,  attention  to  church  union 
at,  423. 

Landes-Kirche,  427-429. 

Laodicean  methods,  610,  611. 

Law,  universe  made  by,  170. 

Laymen,  independent  attitude  of,  578. 

Leo  X.,  Pope,  a  Protestant,  91. 

Leo  XIIL,  Pope:  honors  Newsman 
110;  aims  of,  136:  and  French  free- 
dom, 201 ;  on  total  abstinence,  222; 
his  encyclical  on  union,  423;  on 
church  union,  434. 

Leopold,  of  Tuscany,  reforms  of.  47. 

Lessing :  the  liberator,  18 ;  his  theory 
of  revelation.  279;  on  miracles.  334. 

Liberalism  :  as  a  belief,  357-362 :  Mat- 
thew Arnold  an  example  of,  362- 
365  ;  method  of  Bible  interpretation 
of,  365,  366. 

Liberty,  a  failure,  512-514. 

Liberty,  religious  :  French  bishops  on. 
18 ;  movements  for,  44-48 ;  Crom- 
well's doctrine  on,  442;  in  Japan. 
502.  503. 

Licentiousness:  in  England,  17;  in 
America.  20,  21. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  as  making  sacred 
history,  302. 

Liquor  traffic:  effects  of.  222-224; 
opinions  of  noted  men  on,  222:  in 
the  Philippines.  500 ;  and  war.  .WO. 
Literature  :  eras  of,  follow  revolutions, 
35,  36 ;  the  divine  in  current,  77 : 
burial  of  medieval,  91  ;  attractions 
of  Middle  Ages  for,  94  :  reflecting 
spiritual  tendencies,  143,   144 ;   pro- 


phetic element  in,  147-140,  156-165; 
names  of  contributors  to  emanci- 
pating, 178 ;  theories  of  mission  of, 
183  ;  of  church  union,  424  ;  sensuous, 
preferred,  564;  spiritual  and  devo- 
tional, 600-602. 

'Littlemore  Monastery,"  109. 

Liturgy  for  church  union  in  Germany, 
426. 

"  Lives  "  of  Christ.  341-345. 

Livingstone,  "  Africanus,''  502. 

London  Missionary  Society,  date  of, 
41. 

Louis  XVI.,  his  Edit  de.  Tolerance,  429. 

Louis  XVIIL,  and  the  pope,  46. 

Lourdes,  cures  at,  391. 

Love  :  the  work  of  the  church  to  pro- 
duce, 241,  242 ;  effect  of,  on  Comte's 
philosophy,  374,  375. 

Ludovico,  opposed  to  medievalism,  91. 

Luther:  on  inspiration,  61;  and  the 
peasants,  199  ;  as  a  critic,  261 ;  slan- 
der of,  by  the  Bishop  of  Trent,  480. 

Lutherans  and  the  State  Church,  426, 
427. 

Lynch  law  in  the  Orient,  287. 

Macaulay  on  England's  progress,  172. 

Machinery  :  modern  industry  formed 
by,  231 ;  effects  of,  512,  514,  515. 

Mackay,  work  of,  501. 

Madagascar,  murder  of  king  of,  414. 

Mahmud  IL,  decree  of  extermination 
of,  469. 

Malthusian  principle,  533. 

Man  :  "  is  the  measure  of  all  things," 
73;  "the  Shekinah  of  God,"  1.52: 
Wordsworth  on  the  nature  of,  157- 
159;  Carlyle  on,  170-172;  poets  on 
the  dignity  of,  178,  179:  "parlia- 
ment of,"  180 :  exalted  obligation  of. 
276;  "  a  wolf  to  the  stranger,"  285  ; 
recognition  of  individual  rights  of. 
289;  and  theology,  350;  "is  what 
he  eats,"  366 ;  Comte's  deification  of, 
375,  378-380;  rights  of.  464:  exalta- 
tion of,  554.  555,  594  ;  gratification 
of  nature  of,  564. 

Manila,  liquor  business  in.  500. 

"  Mannerism,  the  gospel  of,"  56L 

Manning,  Cardinal,  efforts  of,  for  la- 
borers. 123. 


644 


GENERAL    INDEX 


Marriage:  among  the  Hebrews,  289- 
292;  not  a  failure,  r)15 ;  crimes 
against,  537,  538. 

Martin,  bishop  of  Paderhorn,  on  Prot- 
estants, 179. 

Martineau  and  Unitarian  success,  326. 

Martineau,  Harriet,  mesmeric  cure  of, 
391. 

Mass,  the:  labors  to  popuhirize,  ll'v- 
117 ;  and  skepticism,  129 ;  Newman 
on,  400. 

Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  anniver- 
sary of,  480. 

Massacres:  of  the  Greeks,  4G9,  471; 
in  Bulgaria,  475 ;  in  Italy  by  the 
Austrians,  486 ;  of  the  Waldenses, 
489. 

Masses,  the :  visions  of  prosperity  for, 
555-557  ;  going  after,  608. 

Materialism,  in  relation  to  agnosti- 
cism, 366-369. 

Matter,  a  "  probable  hypothesis,"  369. 

Maurice  a  Broad-churchman,  122. 

Mayers,  Rev.  Walter,  influence  of,  on 
Newman,  106. 

Mazzini :  mentioned,  484  ;  the  prophet, 
487,  488. 

Medicine,  the  church's  attitude  to- 
ward, 393. 

Medievalism  in  the  services  of  the 
English  Church,  117. 

Medieval  uniformity,  41 1-416. 

Mennonites  :  in  Germany,  427  ;  perse- 
cution of,  530. 

Mephistopheles,  agnosticism  as,  372. 

Mesmer,  investigations  of.  :584. 

Messiah,  prophetic  outlook  toward 
the,  184. 

Methodism  :  rise  of,  24-29  ;  character- 
ization of,  by  Schneckenburger,  25; 
and  faith,  370. 

Methodist  missions,  date  of,  41. 

Methodists  and  abolition  of  slavery, 
43. 

Michael  Angelo  opposed  to  medieval- 
ism, 91. 

Milan,  rising  in,  486. 

Millennium,  attempts  to  realize  the, 
218. 

Mill,  Gladstone's  saying  on,  372. 

Millionaires,  benefactions  of,  580,  581. 

Milton,  a  bp,rdic  priest,  150. 


Ministers:  proper  work  of,  599,  600; 
and  the  children,  601,  605:  "gla- 
cial," 611. 

"  Minimizing"  Bible  words,  365. 

Miracles :  Rationalists'  view  of,  334, 
335  ;  Strauss  on,  343. 

Miserere  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  349. 

Missionary  societies  organized,  41-43. 

Missionaries,  first,  from  America,  42. 

Missions  :  beginnings  of,  41-43  ;  com- 
ity of,  413  ;  of  this  century,  493  ;  sum- 
mary of  extent  of,  494 ;  in  the  Pa- 
cific islands,  497  ;  and  vices  of  civ- 
ilization, 499,  500;  in  Africa,  501 ;  in 
Japan,  503;  in  India,  504,  505;  in 
China,  505,  506;  as  determining  the 
future  of  the  East,  506,  507 ;  at  the 
fall  of  the  Western  empire,  517;  be- 
gun in  poverty,  582. 

Mixed  marriages,  religion  of  children 
of,  136. 

Mivart,  St.  George,  his  conflict  with 
Romanism,  578,  579. 

Mohammed  II..  victory  of,  468. 

MohammedanisQi :  cures  under.  .391 ; 
concession  by  United  States  to,  465; 
numerical  standing  of,  574. 

Molokaians,  410. 

Monarchy  and  religious  liberty.  428. 

Money :  spent  in  missions,  494 :  su- 
premacy of,  558-561 ;  raising  church, 
61.5-618. 

Money  power:  rule  of  the,  513  :  inim- 
ical to  freedom,  513. 

Monod,  Frederick,  a  religious  leader, 
430. 

Monopoly,  no  rights  for,  228. 

Montesquieu  on  English  life,  14. 

Moody,  Dwight  L. :  message  of,  208 ; 
education  of,  421 ;  his  gift  to  the 
Catholics,  450. 

Moravians  :  and  Wesley,  26,  27  ;  their 
origin.  27;  date  of  missions  of,  41; 
in  Germany,  427. 

More.  Hannah,  humane  work  of,  583. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  prophetic,  147. 

Mormon  ism  :  rise  of,  354  ;  a  fraud, 
399  ;  account  of,  400,  402. 

Morris,  William,  and  the  Oxford 
movement,  130. 

Morrison,  work  of,  505. 

"  Mortal  mind,"  ;395,  396. 


GENERAL    INDEX 


645 


Moses  and  the  shepherd,  73. 

Mosaic  code,  educative  character  of, 

•286-289. 
Motherhood,  unpopularity  of,  587,  538. 
Mouutain-climbing  us  an  illustration, 

512. 
Mountain  Meadow  massacre,  402. 
Miiller,  George,  of  Bristol,  orphanage 

of,  234. 
Miiller,  Johann  von,  on  the  Bible,  402 

403. 
Municipal  governments,  513,  514. 
Music  in  worship,  596-^98. 
Musset,  Alfred  de,  romanticism  of,  96. 
Mysticism,  revival  of,  in  France,  337. 

Naples,  rising  in,  486. 

Napoleon  :  and  the  pope,  46  ;  law  of, 
regarding  Protestants,  430. 

"  National  Apostasy,"  effect  of  Kcble's 
sermon  on,  101. 

Nationalizing  the  church,  425-433. 

Naturalism :  popularity  of,  in  nine- 
teenth century,  247  ;  for  religion,  354. 

"  Natural  Selection,"  abandoned,  310. 

Nature:  man's  relation  to,  68,  69; 
in  Wordsworth,  157-159 ;  meaning 
in,  248  ;  symbolic,  248,  249. 

Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society,  date 
of,  41. 

Navarino,  victory  of,  471. 

Neander,  "The  Last  of  the  Fathers," 
343. 

Neo-Platonism,  its  influence  on  the 
church  Fathers  and  schoolmen,  64, 
65. 

Neurotic  diseases,  cure  of,  .391. 

New  Hampshire,  governor's  comment 
on  religion  in.  524. 

Newman,  John  Henry :  biographical 
account  of,  105-110  :  estimate  of  in- 
fluence of,  110 ;  and  the  Chartist 
movement,  208;  his  criticism  of 
Hampden,  311. 

New  Testament,  no  hierarchy  in,  06, 
67. 

New  York  City  :  corruption  in,  514  ; 
religious  conditions  in,  521-526. 

Nicholas  III.,  Czar,  in  relation  to 
peace,  530. 

Nicholas  I.,  Czar :  on  the  Greek 
Church,  473  ;  stand  of,  474,  475. 


Nightingale  and  the  clerics,  story  of, 
23. 

Nightingale,  Florence,  527. 

Nineteenth  century,  summary  of 
achievements  of,  4-G. 

Nitschmann,  26. 

"  Nonconformist  Conscience,"  462. 

Nonconformists:  contributions  of,  49; 
good  works  of,  122 ;  contemptuous 
description  of,  125  ;  equality  of,  with 
Anglicans,  125,  120;  benefits  from, 
416  ;  progress  of,  433  ;  better  attitude 
toward,  449,  450;  combination  of, 
451. 

"  None  but  Christ,"  345. 

Northampton,  revival  in.  29,  30. 

Novels :  theology  in,  148;  reflecting 
modern  life,  537,  538. 

Nude  in  art,  535-537. 

Obermann,  estimate  of,  447. 

Oglethorpe,  Governor,  his  ix)sition  on 
slavery  and  liquor  selling,  21G. 

"Old  Catholics,"  411. 

Old  Testament:  human  element  in 
60,  61 ;  imperfections  of,  280-283. 

Oneida  Community,  607. 

"  Open  Door  "  in  China,  506. 

Opium  war,  529. 

Oratorios,  religious  use  of,  597,  598. 

Order  in  the  church,  544-546. 

'•  Order  of  Corporate  Reunion,"  117. 

Organizations :  forming  of  evangeliz- 
ing, 41-43  :  multiplication  of  philan- 
thropic, 585.  586. 

Oriel  school,  names  of  leaders  in,  99. 

Origen,  teaching  of.  70. 

Oxford :  measures  against  Dissenters 
at,  25,  98,  311;  deceptions  at,  219; 
statistics  by  professor  at,  574. 

"Oxford  Movement":  rise  of,  25  ;  a 
reaction,  47;  medievalism  of,  96; 
purpose  of,  96-98,  lOO-lttS  ;  tracts  of. 
101-103;  Pusey's  influence  on,  112- 
111;  evil  effects  of,  124-130;  and 
church  architecture,  130 ;  and  the 
arts,  loO,  131  ;  reaction  from,  131, 
132 ;  arrest  of,  1:57  ;  and  humanitar- 
lanLsm,  208;  obstacles  to,  441. 

Paganism  :  in  the  Renaissance,  91,  92  ; 
converts  from,  494. 


646 


GENERAL    INDEX 


raiiie,  Tom,  effect  of  writings  of,  19, 

20. 
Painters,  religious,  596. 
Painting :  two  styles  of,  300 ;  as  a  lielp 

to  worsiiip,  590. 
Paintings  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  318, 

319. 
Palermo,  rising  in,  486. 
Palestine,  Greek  Church  dispute  over 

shrines  in,  473,  474. 
Pangenesis  never  adopted,  310. 
Pan  not  dead,  92. 
Pantheism,  religious,  origin  of,  33. 
Papacy :  worldliness  of,  197,  198,  201, 

202  ;  and  the  Reformation,  415 ;  a 

hindrance  to  church  union,  434-43G, 

483 ;  dream  of   Austria's  restoring, 

479-481 ;  its  failure  in  municipal  gov- 
ernment, 483,  484. 
"  Paralysis  from  Idea,"  392. 
Parker,  Dr.  Joseph,  protest  of,  450. 
Parker,  Theodore,  as  a  reform  leader, 

216. 
Pastoral  work,  599,  600. 
Patience,  need  of,  in  theology,  74. 
Patriotism  and  trusts,  562,  563. 
Peace  Conference  of  the  Hague,  530, 

531. 
Peasants'  revolt,  principles  of  the,  199. 
Peel,  Sir  Robert,  bill  of,  for  emancipa- 
tion of  Roman  Catholics,  97,  98. 
Persecutions:  in    France.   18,   19;    in 

Russia,  201,  530 ;  in  Turkey,  468,  469, 

471. 
Pessimism  :  for  religion,  354  ;  account 

of,  380-382;    its  theory  of   history, 

4,58. 
Peterborough,    bishop   of,    on    social 

ideals,  192. 
Peter  the  Great:  prediction  of,  as  to 

Muscovite  dominion,  472;  plans  of, 

474. 
Pew  rental,  550,  551. 
"Phanariots,"  469. 
Philippines,   the:    under  the  United 

States,  491  ;  the  Bible  in  the,  495 ; 

rise  of,  497,  499  ;  Catholicism  in,  498  ; 

spirit  of    freedom    in,    498 ;    licjuor 

trade  in,  ,500. 
Philosophers,   definitions  of    religion 

by,  53  ;  names  of  noblest,  368. 
Philosophy:    Alexandrian,    34;     of 


Comte,  40;  its  effects  on  early  theo- 
logians, 65 ;  agnosticism  not  a,  370. 

Piedmont,  constitution  granted  to, 
486. 

Piers  Plowman  prophetic,  147. 

Pietists  of  Halle,  27. 

Pius  IV.,  formula  of  faith  of,  438. 

Pius  VI.,  imprisoned,  46. 

Pius  VII.,  negotiations  of,  with  Louis 
XVIII.,  46. 

Pius  IX. :  his  definition  of  liberty,  201  ; 
encyclical  of,  on  liberty,  437 ;  re- 
forms of,  48.5-487. 

Plato :  his  influence  on  church  phi- 
losophers, 64,  65  ;  his  attitude  toward 
foreigners,  285 ;  his  views  on  the 
nude  in  art,  536. 

Plevna,  fighting  before,  475. 

Pliny :  approved  gladiatorial  com- 
bats, 285;  and  Christian  unity,  451. 

Plymouth,  the  physician  of,  448,  449. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  422. 

Poetry :  romantic  idea  of,  93  ;  on  the 
dignity  of  man,  178,  179. 

Politics :  and  church  influence,  462, 
463,  464,  468-493;  religion  and,  in 
America,  490-493;  the  church  and, 
527-5:32  ;  secularism  and,  ,562. 

Polygamy :  ancient,  290,  291 ;  revela- 
tion for  Mormon,  400. 

Polynesia,  future  of,  497. 

Pope,  a  reforming,  485. 

Population,  decline  in,  537-539. 

Porto  Rico  under  the  United  States, 
491. 

Positivism:  for  religion,  354;  names 
of  students  of,  374  ;  Spencer  on,  374  ; 
effect  of  love  upon,  374,  375;  and 
"Aiifklaruvg,"  375,376;  religion  of, 
376-380. 

Poverty :  the  cause  of,  222 ;  of  a  cen- 
tury ago,  581,  582. 

Powers,  great,  jealousy  among,  470, 
478. 

Prayer,  importance  of,  78. 

' '  Procrminire, ' '  432. 

"  Pru'sens  Divus,"  428. 

Preachers,  modern,  compared  with 
the  prophets,  146,  147. 

Preaching,  comments  on,  548. 

Predestination,  321.  327. 

"  Prelude,"  Coleridge  on  tne,  157. 


GENERAL    INDEX 


647 


I'rc-Raphaelites  :  names  of,  130  ;  mer- 
its of,  130,  131. 

Presbyterians,  Cumberland,  421. 

Present,  outlook  from  the,  572,  573. 

Press,  problems  of  the,  514,  515. 

"  Prevention,"  policy  of,  G02. 

Priesthood,  decrease  of  the,  133,  134. 

"  Primitive  "  church  union,  425,  443- 
445. 

Princeton  College,  irreligion  in,  20. 

Prisoners,  sufferings  of,  16. 

Private  judgment,  the  right  of,  579. 

"Prophecies"  by  Newton,  read  by 
Newman,  106. 

Progress,  observation  of  direction  of, 
34. 

Prophecy  as  forecasting,  572. 

Prophetism  :  and  character,  149 ;  di- 
rection of  modern,  151,  152 ;  and 
sacerdotalism,  152. 

Prophets :  Hebrew,  145,  168,  169 ;  the 
choosing  of,  145. 

Protestants :  numbers  of,  in  America, 
408  ;  co-operation  among,  446. 

Protestantism  :  in  Canada,  137 ;  not 
responsible  for  sects,  409-411 ;  hostil- 
ity between  Romanism  and,  413, 
414  ;  in  France,  429-431 ;  unity  of  feel- 
ing in,  445-450 ;  prophecy  against, 
in  Brandenburg,  478 ;  campaign 
against,  in  Germany,  478-482; 
growth  of,  574,  575. 

"  Protestantism  a  Failure,"  519. 

Prussia :  growth  of  Protestantism  in, 
136 ;  the  State  Church  of,  426,  427 ; 
war  of  Austria  and,  480;  Protestant 
measures  in,  481,  482. 

Psychical  research,  381,  385. 

Pulpits,  freedom  of,  358,  359. 

"  Purgatorial  Order,"  117. 

Puritans :  inconsistencies  of,  21,  22, 
24  ;  their  views  of  inspiration,  262. 

Pusey,  Edward  Bouverie,  biographical 
sketch  of,  112-114. 

Pythagoreanism,  traces  of,  in  theol- 
ogy, 65. 

Quakers:   and   abolition,  43 ;   against 

church  subsidies,  561. 
Quarrels,  church,  219. 

Raikes,   Robert:    his  work   for   chil- 


dren, 208-210;  popular  education 
begun  by,  583. 

Raphael :  his  painting  of  Theology, 
346;  his  paintings  in  the  Sistine,  318. 

Rationalism :  antagonized  by  roman- 
ticism, 93  ;  changes  in,  333,  334. 

Raynal,  Abbe,  position  of,  18. 

Realism,  authors  and  artists  opposed 
to,  535. 

Reason,  Goddess  of,  45. 

Reform  :  this  an  era  of,  463  ;  a  watch- 
word, 464  ;  societies  for,  585,  586. 

Reformation,  the:  Dr.  Croly's  saying 
on,  4 ;  socialistic  side  of,  196 ;  not 
the  cause  of  sectarianism,  409 ;  D61- 
linger  on,  415;  checked,  517;  and 
music,  597  ;  enthusiasm  of,  612. 

Reformed  Church  of  France,  430. 

Reformers,  the :  discredited  in  Eng- 
land, 120;  prophets  as,  168,  169; 
within  the  church,  207,  208  ;  the,  and 
Sunday  observance,  558  ;  prospects 
for,  582,  584. 

Reforms:  papacy's  attitude  toward 
social,  201,  202;  in  England  due  to 
one  man,  211 ;  temperance,  222-224  ; 
in  housing  of  the  poor,  224-228; 
wrought  by  denominations,  445,  446; 
in  new  institutions,  515. 

Religion :  and  intellectual  awaken- 
ings, 32,  33,  36 ;  confounded  with 
ecclesiasticism,  46;  definitions  of, 
by  philosophers,  53;  Christian  defi- 
nition of,  54,  55;  Chri.stianity  the 
supreme,  51 ;  capable  of  change,  69, 
70 ;  a  contact  between  human  and 
divine,  78;  the  ideal  in,  80;  form- 
less, 307;  "Christianity  the  ideal," 
328  :  tests  of,  335,  356,  357 ;  the  soul's 
response  to,  .336 ;  its  hold  on  the 
race,  355;  Arnold's  definition  of. 
364  ;  Comte's  three  elements  of,  378  ; 
two  sides  of  its  history,  457-459; 
national  types  of,  459,  460:  and  the 
Ottoman  government,  477 :  wars 
and,  481,490,  491;  in  Italy,  482-490 : 
fluctuations  in  the  history  of,  517 ; 
and  society,  5:^2-534 :  arrested  prog- 
ress in,  522  :  ethnic,  507  ;  faddists  in, 
543,  544  ;  crisis  in.  547  :  and  culture. 
552,  553 ;  statistics  on  the  kinds  of, 
574,  575. 


648 


GENERAL    INDEX 


"  Religion  of  Humanity,"  374,  37G-380. 

Religious  liberty  :  Jeremy  Taylorand, 
358  ;  in  peril  in  America,  493 ;  in 
Japan,  502,  503 ;  in  Porto  Rieo  and 
I'hilippines,  521. 

Religious  question,  the,  Auguste  Sa- 
batier  on,  7,  8. 

Religious  Tract  Society,  date  of,  42. 

Renaissance:  rebirth  of  the  classical, 
91 ;  and  Roman  Catholicism,  91 ;  re- 
awakening of  paganism,  91,  92  ;  de- 
cay of,  92. 

"  Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus 
Christ   of   Latter-day  Saints,"    401. 

Revelation :  continued  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  70.  71 ;  not  complete,  7(5,  77  ; 
authority  of,  77,  78  ;  notion  of  uni- 
versal, 247  ;  possibility  of  a  written, 
250,  251 ;  "gradualness  of,"  278-284  ; 
progressive,  of  nature  of  God,  292- 
295  ;  Ritschlian  tlieory  of,  296  ;  cen- 
tering in  Christ,  296-300;  by  the 
spirits  of  the  dead,  385-388. 

Revival :  of  Catholicism,  139  ;  of  1832 
in  France,  336;  influence  of  the 
Wesleyan,  583. 

Revivals:  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
9,  10;  of  1735,  29;  of  1796-1800,  30; 
nervous  disturbances  in,  31,  32  ;  and 
intellectual  activity,  33,  36 :  of  me- 
dievalism, 92-96 ;  great  periods  of, 
517,  518. 

Revolution,  the  American  :  literary 
activity  following,  35,  36;  political 
effects  of,  37. 

Revolution,  French  :  a  warning,  37. 
;^8;  a  termination  of  an  epoch,  38, 
,     39 ;  the  message  of,  39,  40. 

Ritschlian  principle,  296. 

Ritualism  :  loss  by,  80;  sensuous.  128  : 
progress  of,  439. 

Rochdale,  the  birthplace  of  co-opera- 
tion, 2:',2. 

Rolands,  the,  and  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, 40. 

Rome  under  the  papacy.  483,  4SL 

Roman  Empire:  influence  of,  on 
church  forms,  64,66,  67;  its  litera- 
ture as  reflecting  its  life,  139 ; divorce 
in,  290,  291 ;  influence  of  govern- 
ment of,  on  theology,  317-319  ;  legal 
temper  of,  4.59. 


Roman  Catholicism :  France  disi\ 
lusioned  as  to,  95 ;  Newman's  acces^ 
sion  to,  108-111 ;  changed  estimate 
of.  111  ;  revulsion  from,  in  Europe, 
132-138 ;  its  antagonism  to  social 
reform,  195  ;  worldline.ss  of,  197,  198, 
201,  202  ;  productive  of  division,  410, 
411 ;  hostility  between  Protestant- 
ism and,  413,  414  ;  and  church  union, 
423,  434-439 ;  and  the  old  German 
Empire,  478-181 ;  its  conquest  of  the 
Philippines,  498  ;  expulsion  of,  from 
Japan,  503  ;  its  indifference  to  pub- 
lic wrongs,  530,  531 ;  decay  of,  519- 
521, 575  ;  its  incompatibility  with  sci- 
ence, 579. 

Roman  Catholics,  numbers  of,  in 
America,  408. 

Roman  Curia,  219. 

Romanticism :  origin  of,  92,  93 ;  and 
Catholic  revival,  95  ;  in  France,  95, 
90 ;  in  England,  96-98 ;  in  modern 
religion,  129 ;  and  art  in  religion, 
131  ;  boundaries  of,  in  religion,  138. 

Ronge  and  Czerki,  411. 

Rontgen  rays,  5. 

Rosetta  stone  for  nature,  247,  248. 

Rose,  Rev.  H.  J.,  attacks  German  the- 
ology, 113. 

Rosy  Cross,  the,  220. 

Rothe's  universal  State,  205. 

Rousseau :  position  of,  18 ;  and  the 
French  Revolution,  40. 

Ruskin,  John :  prophetism  of,  173- 
177 ;  his  visit  to  a  meeting-house, 
593  ;  on  the  cathedrals,  595. 

Rus.sia:  religion  in,  200,  201 ;  sects  in, 
410;  church  of,  and  Romanism, 
435-137 ;  its  future,  462 :  freeing  of 
serfs  in,  467:  her  wars  against  Tur- 
key, 471-476:  in  Korea,  504  ;  tone  of 
press  of,  513 ;  religious  persecution 
in,  530. 

Sacramentalism  in  the  "Christian 
Year."  10:^,  101. 

Sacerdotalism:  connection  between 
benevolence  and,  122;  and  prophet- 
ism, 1.52. 

Sadowa.  !)attle  of,  481. 

Saints,  quietness  of  the,  601. 

St.  Bartholomew,  massacre  of,  480. 


GENERAL    INDEX 


649 


St.  Giacomodi  Rialtoat  Venice,  motto 
of,  606. 

St.  Mary's,  Newman  at,  107,  109. 

St.  Mark's,  as  un  illustration,  173. 

St.  Paul  a  positivist,  361. 

St.  Winifred's  Well,  cures  at,  391. 

Saloon,  the :  encroachments  of,  223, 
224;  in  Dublin,  223  ;  in  Manila,  500. 

Salvation  Army,  sensationalism  of, 
127. 

Samoa,  497. 

Samuel,  introducing  a  new  order.  144. 

Sanctity,  ceremonial  and  real,  005. 

Sandwich  Islands,  conversion  of,  498, 
499. 

San  Stefano,  treaty  of,  476. 

Sandemanianism,  419. 

Sassoun,  478. 

Satires  of  medieval  priesthood,  197. 

Scandals  of  the  press,  533. 

Schelling  as  to  religion,  53. 

Schiller :  humanism  of,  93  ;  attitude 
of  statue  of,  151. 

Schism,  causes  and  times  of,  407-411 ; 
under  State  Churches,  420-433 ;  be- 
tween Greek  and  Roman  Churches, 
431-437 ;  in  the  apostolic  church, 
444  ;  papacy  cannot  heal,  483. 

Schleiermacher :  as  to  religion,  53  ;  his 
method  in  theology,  335. 

Schoolmen,  effect  of  Plato  upon,  65. 

Schopenhauer's  philosophy,  380-382. 

Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg, 
question  of  disposition  of,  480. 

Science:  changes  in,  309,  310;  meth- 
ods of,  in  theology,  332-339 ;  conflict 
between  faith  and,  337;  theology 
as  a,  347  ;  and  superstition,  3G7  :  and 
agnosticism,  370,  371 ;  and  Roman- 
ism in  conflict,  578,  579. 

Scotland:  spiritual  dryness  of,  34: 
ritualism  in,  123,  124 :  liberal  theol- 
ogy in,  329,  330. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter :  appearance  of,  35  ; 
romanticism  of,  96;  Wallace's  esti- 
mate of,  157. 

Scottish  Missionary  Society,  date  of, 
41. 

Scribes'  methods  of  interpretation, 
259,  260. 

Seeker,  Archbishop,  his  parents  Dis- 
senters, 126. 


"  Secret Orderof  the  Holy  Redeemer," 

mentioned,  117. 
Sectarian    appropriations   of    public 

money,  111. 
Sectarianism :    in   small   towns,   412, 
413;   in  heathen  lands,  413;  "Dis- 
ciples"   protest   against,    420,    421; 
popular  feeling  about,  424,  425  ;  fed- 
eration a  remedy  for,  450,  451. 
Sects:  extent  of,  410;  of  the  Middle 
Ages,    410;    superior    morality    of 
smaller,  415;  safety  in  multiplicity 
of,  416  ;  derivation  of  word,  420  ;  ne- 
cessity of,  421,  422. 
Secularism :  of  the  present,  554-564  ; 

deliverance  from,  564-567. 
"  Sccums  judical  orbis  ierrarum,"  108. 
Self-sacriflce  and  the  church,  241. 
Sensationalism  in  religion,  127,   128, 

613-615. 
Sensuality,  danger  of  refined,  535. 
Serfs,  freeing  of  the,  467. 
Sermon  on  the  Mount:  social  ideals 

of,  191,  192;  politics  of  the,  206. 
Sexuality:  of  Mormonism,  400;  of  lit- 
erature and  drama,  533-539. 
Seybert  Commission  of  the  University 

of  Pennsylvania,  388. 
Shaftesbury,  Earl  of,  work  of,  211-213. 
Shakespeare:  as  prophetic,  147;  Sun- 
day-school class  studying,  540. 
Shelley,  songs  of,  98. 
Sieyes,  Abbe,  position  of,  18. 
Sistine  Chapel,  the,  as  an  illustration, 

348,  349. 
Skepticism:  in  Yale,  20;  renaissance 
of  Catholicism  resjionsible  for,  129 ; 
and  family  worship,  542. 
Skobelcff,   Dimitrivitch,    the  "white 

general,"  476. 
Slavery:  early  opposition  to,  43;  lit- 
erature against,  180  ;  English  aboli- 
tion of,  212,  214 ;  Smylie's  sanction 
for,  214,  215;  agitation  against,  in 
America,  214-216;  eflect of  agitation 
against,  on  the  church,  215;  attinity 
between  liquor  and,  216:  compro- 
mise laws  on,  2S7 ;  in  the  Hebre^v 
commonwealth,  288,  289;  beginning 
of  protest  against,  464  ;  white,  of  the 
Barbary  States.  465,  466:  African, 
466-468  ;  Greek,  468,  469,  471. 


650 


GENERAL    INDEX 


Smith,  Joseph,  fate  of,  400. 

Smith,  Sidney,  cynicism  of,  494. 

Smylie,  Rev.  Jauies,  his  defense  of 
slavery,  214,  215. 

Social  order,  attempts  to  realize  new, 
218. 

"Socializing"  industry,  228. 

Societies  for  reform,  585,  586. 

"  Society  for  the  DifYusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge,"  98. 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  date  of,  41. 

Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge,  date  of,  41. 

"  Society  of  the  Holy  Cross,"  117. 

Society :  Christianity  and,  82,  84,  400, 
461,  463,  493,  496,  497,  508,  018,  019 ; 
gospel  for,  190-192 ;  churches  under- 
taking reforms  of,  203,  204 ;  limita- 
tion of  religion  in,  532-534 ;  visions 
of  perfection  of,  556,  557. 

Sociology,  Bishop  Potter  on  the  church 
and,  607. 

Socrates :  his  visit  to  a  prostitute,  285  ; 
synthesis  of,  370. 

Sodom,  the  modern  world  as  a,  533.  ' 

Solomon  on  the  home,  292. 

Sophists,  370. 

Sophocles,  prophetic,  147. 

South  African  War,  illustration  from, 
446. 

Sovereignty  and  fatherhood,  319. 

Spain  :  reforms  in,  47 :  reaction  from 
Romanism  in,  132;  the  American 
war  with,  490-492. 

Spanish  ejecting  Protestants  from 
Fernando  PO;  414. 

Spencer;  Herbert,  as  to  religion,  53. 

Spiritism  or  Spiritualism  :  rise  of,  354  ; 
account  of,  383,  384 ;  effects  on  re- 
search, 385  ;  as  a  religion,  38.5-389. 

Spiritual,  the  ;  phenomena  of,  credi- 
ble, 371;  independence  in,  441-443; 
the  church  the  revealer  of,  591 ; 
three  branches  of,  .592. 

Spirit-wrestlers.  201,  410. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  H. :  charities  of, 
234;  education  of,  421. 

Stahl's  social  theory,  205. 

State  and  Church,  205,  425-433,  590. 

Statesmen,  influence  of  Christian,  in 
Japan,  502. 


Stevens,  Robert,  his  report  on  textual 
variations,  262. 

Stigmata,  phenomena  of,  384. 

Stoicism :  traces  of,  in  theology,  65 ; 
useless,  567. 

Stolberg's  belief,  93. 
'  Storm  and  stress  "  period,  32. 

Stundists,  201,  410,  530. 

"  Submission  of  the  Clergy,"  432. 

Sunday  observance :  lack  of,  15 ;  and 
secularism,  557-559;  reformers' 
views  of,  558. 

Sunday-school,  the;  "Gentleman's 
Magazine"  on,  12;  Bishop  of  Roch- 
ester on,  12,  13 ;  the  beginnings  of, 
208-210;  present  size  of,  210;  and 
popular  education,  583;  neglect  of, 
599 ;  importance  of,  603. 

Sunday-school  Society,  date  of,  41. 

Sunday-school  Union,  date  of,  42. 

Supernatural,  the  :  the  origin  of  relig- 
ion, 57,  58  ;  impossibility  of,  334  ;  in 
history,  458,  459  ;  in  the  early  Chris- 
tian centuries,  554. 

Superstition  and  religion,  54. 

Supreme  Being,  ground  for  belief  in 
a,  309. 

"  Supremacy  of  the  Crown,"  432. 

■'  Symbolo-Fideisme"  school  of  theol- 
ogy, 337-339. 

Synesius  and  Plato,  65. 

Table-rappings,  386. 

Tahiti.  497. 

Talleyrand,  position  of,  18. 
'  Teachings  of  the  Twelve,"  451. 

Temperance  Society,  date  of,  43. 

Temporal :  prominence  of  the,  553- 
557  ;  pleasures,  503,  564. 

Ten  Commandments,  inspiration  of 
the,  270. 

Tenement  houses,  statistics  on,  225. 

Tennyson :  and  the  Oxford  move- 
ment, 130;  as  prophet,  152;  not 
theological,  164,  165. 

Tertullian,  juridical  bias  of,  65. 

Theatre,  the :  of  the  Restoration.  17  ; 
demoralization  of,  533,  534,  564;  re- 
forming, 540,  541 ;  a  church  like, 
590;  church  rivaling,  014.  015. 

Theism  in  debt  to  revelation  of  Christ, 
299. 


GENERAL    INDEX 


651 


Theologians:  reviving  the  Alexan- 
drian theology,  82  ;  original,  321. 

Theology:  Alexandrian,  81,  82;  of 
Germany,  ll:^ ;  in  literature,  148, 
149 ;  necessity  of,  808 ;  fate  of  inno- 
vators in,  310-312 ;  revolution  in, 
313  ;  Augustiniau,  modified,  315, 310  ; 
democratic  ideas  in,  320,  321 ;  forma- 
tion of  a  new,  321,  322  ;  humanizing 
of,  327,  332 ;  scientific  basis  for,  332- 
339;  Christocentric,  339-34C;  Ra- 
phael's painting  of,  346,  317 ;  "  Queen 
of  Sciences,"  347, 348  ;  use  of,  349,  350 ; 
set  aside  in  Prussia,  42G. 

Theosophists,  consideration  for,  422. 

"  Thirty-nine  Articles  "  :  the  subscrib- 
ing to,  at  Oxford,  98  ;  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  102. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  religious  result  of, 
428. 

"  Three  Stages  of  Thought,"  of  Comte, 
376,  377. 

Tolstoy's  position,  176,  178. 

Tourgenieff  and  serfdom,  182. 

Tractarianism  :  rise  of,  101 ;  tracts  of, 
101-103;  authorof,  103;  Newman  in, 
107.  108. 

Trajan's  approval  of  gladiatorial  com- 
bats, 285. 

Transcendentalists  :  German,  153  ; 
failure  of,  166.  167. 

"  The  Triple  Tyrant,"  489. 

Trusts  and  the  country's  good  identi- 
fied, 562. 

Truth  a  test  of  inspiration,  271-275. 

Turkey :  oppression  of  the  Greeks  by, 
468,  469,  471 ;  promises  of  safety  for 
Christians  in,  470,  475  ;  war  against. 
471,  472-478;  the  "Great  Assassin," 
475. 

Tuscany:  Church  and  State  in,  47; 
constitution  granted  to,  486. 

"Twelve  Articles"  of  the  Peasants, 
199. 

Tyndall's  obsolete  position.  368. 

Tyranny  and  the  gospel,  488,  489. 

Uganda,  the  churches  of,  501. 
"Ultramontanism,"  439. 
Ultramontanists  disappointed,  481. 
"  Uniformity,  acts  of,"  432. 
Uniformity,  resistance  to,  452. 


Union,  cliureh,  421-454. 

Unitarianism :  the  debt  to,  324,  325; 
failure  of.  32,5-327  :  names  of  leaders 
in,  326 ;  origin  of,  418 ;  oblivious- 
ness to  decay  of,  519  ;  Martineau  ou 
literature  of,  600,  601. 

"  Unitarian  Orthodoxy,"  216. 

United  States.     (See  America.) 

Unity:  according  to  Jovinian,  448; 
in  Protestantism,  445-450;  visions  of, 
453,  454. 

Universalists,  organization  of,  421. 

Universities  opposed  to  papal  infal- 
libility, 438. 

•'  Unknowable,"  the  worship  of,  372. 

Utah,  Mormon  migration  to,  400. 

Valla,  Lorenzo,  as  a  critic,  2.54. 
Yaughan,  Cardinal :  on  Anglicanism, 

114,   115  ;    his  conflict  with  Mivart, 

578,  579. 
Yenezuelan  boundary  question,  531. 
Yenice,   restrictions  on  the  Catholic 

church  in,  47. 
Yenus  de  Medici,  measurements  of, 

269. 
Yeracity  and  the  papacy,  486. 
Yerbal  inspiration,  99,  262,  263,    206, 

267,  270. 

Wages,  increase  in,  229. 

Wagner,  Richard,  and  the  orchestra 
leader,  79. 

Waldcnses :  and  the  Moravians,  27 ; 
obscurity  of,  482  ;  and  Italy's  unity, 
488,  489. 

War:  and  the  church,  528,  529-5:32: 
and  poverty,  581,  582;  good  from, 
584. 

Warburton.  Bishop,  education  of,  126. 

Ware,  Henry,  in  the  Hoi  lis  chair,  418. 

"  War  lord,"  as  a  pope,  426. 

"War  of  extermination,"  477. 

Wealth  :  Adam  Smith's  teaching  on, 
280 ;  of  Protestant  countries,  580. 

Werner,  beliefs  of,  93. 

Wesley,  Charles  :  accompanying  Ogle- 
thorpe, 26 ;  work  of,  583. 

Wesley,  John:  work  of,  25-27;  in- 
fluenced by  Law,  26;  influence  of 
work  of.  83,  583  :  inspiration  of,  612. 

West  Indies,  beginning  of  slavery  in, 
466. 


652 


GENERAL    INDEX 


Westphalia,  peace  of,  428,  479. 
Wliately,  liberal  beliefs  of,  99. 
Whitetield,  George:  work  mentioned, 

30;  inspiration  of,  61-'. 
Whitman,  Walt,  as  prophetic,  165. 
Whittier,  estimate  of,  IGo. 
Wilberforce,   William  :   his  work,  30, 

583  ;  and  slavery,  214. 
Wilberforce,  Bishop,  his  criticisms  of 

Hampden,  311. 
Willard,  Frances  E.,  a  peerless  leader, 

217. 
William  the  Conqueror,   three  rules 

of,  431,  432. 
William  II.,  Emperor,  his  testimony  to 

Count  Ito,  502. 
William  III.,  King,  erects  a  religious 

society,  41. 
Williams  College,  the  praying  band 

of,  42, 
Williams,  John,  missionary  work  of, 

497. 
Wiseman,  Cardinal,  article  by,  108. 
Woe,  "  the  philosopher  of,"  380. 
"  Woman's      Christian     Temperance 

Union,"  success  of,  217. 
Women,  enlarging  activities  of,  576, 

577. 
Women's  Christian    Association   and 

church  union,  452. 
Words,  merely  suggestive,  71,  72. 
Wordsworth  :  religious  quality  of.  34  ; 

and  nature,  98 ;  prophetism  of,  157- 

160 ;  Arnold  on.  518. 


Work  harmonizes,  451,  452. 

"  Works  without  Chris-tian  progress," 
520. 

Worldliness,  not  cured  by  the  Refor- 
mation, 198,  199. 

Worship:  real,  372  ;  lack  of  interest  in 
public,  522-526  ;  family,  541,  542,  559  ; 
indispensable,  592,  593;  manner  of, 
59:^-595;  the  arts  in  public,  595-598. 

"  Worship  in  stone,"  595. 

"  U  unscfncoioi,''  tiie  gods,  366. 

Wycliffe  and  O.xford,  25. 

Ximenes,  Cardinal,  against  Algiers, 
465. 

Yokoi's  prophecy,  502. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  church  union,  424,  452. 

Y.  P.  S.  C.  E.  and  church  union,  424, 
452. 

Young,  Brigham,  400. 

Young,  Edward,  evangelical,  34. 

Ypsilantes,  Prince  Alexander,  cam- 
paign of,  469. 

Zcit-gcist,  the:  nature  of  modern,  122; 

described,  354,  555. 
Zinzendorf's  influence  on  Wesley,  27. 
Zola,  a  champion   of   righteousness, 

587. 
Zoroaster,  567. 
Zulu  Bible,  495. 


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